Importance of Reference Dataset Improvements for Argo Delayed-Mode Quality Control

For the Argo Project, monitoring the global upper ocean by a large number of profiling floats, maintaining the quality of salinity data is critical; the goal for measurement accuracy is ±0.01. Experiments using the method of Wong et al. (2003), the standard delayed-mode quality control (dQC) for the Project, show that its performance depends critically on the reference datasets used. This study concludes that the method is useful for Argo and has sufficient potential to achieve the goal for salinity measurement in the North Pacific, when suitable reference datasets are prepared. Considering the Wong et al. (2003) algorithms, we suggest that reference datasets with the following characteristics will be most suitable for Argo dQC: They should be basically derived from the most extensive datasets, such as the latest World Ocean Database; in regions with denser observations, datasets with carefully quality controls should be used; in the regions with subsurface temperature inversions, such as the subarctic North Pacific, the profiles used for the reference must extend below the deepest temperature maximum to prepare proper salinities for the deep layer reference.     

Conductivity/salinity/temperature relationship of diluted and concentrated standard seawater

The conductivity ratio of diluted and concentrated standard seawater has been measured very accurately in a salinity range from 0 to42permiland at temperature from -1 to30degC. All the data have been fitted into polynomials which are compared with previous data. The specific conductance of seawater is deduced and a polynomial for the full range of salinity and temperature is proposed. Data presented in this paper have been used, with those of Dauphinee presented in this issue, to elaborate the new "Practical Salinity Scale 1978."     

海洋投弃式温深剖面仪应用发展概述

海洋温度的变化会显著影响水下声传播、生物活动、气象和洋流等现象,温深是反映海洋变化运动规律的基本参数。投弃式温深剖面仪(Expendable Bathythermograph,XBT)、温盐深测量仪(Conductivity Temperature Depth,CTD)、全球海洋实时观测网(Array for Real-time Geostrophic Oceanography,Argo)等是目前进行海水温深测量的主要仪器。其中XBT因其现场测量简便、效率高、硬件成本低等特点,正在被大规模使用。本文主要介绍有关海洋温度测量的背景及演化历史,分析对比了国内外相关仪器设备的发展现状,总结了国产化产品还存在的差距和不足,另外对传感器、结构设计、数据通讯传输、数据后处理、可靠性研究等关键技术和研究热点进行了详细介绍,最后对未来无人平台的技术发展路线给出了思路和见解,开展投弃式温深剖面仪的相关技术研究和产品研制对实现国产化有积极的推动意义。     

A portable salinometer based on direct measurement of the conductivity ratioR_{t}

A new portable salinometer has been developed which is based On a direct determination of the conductivity ratioR_{t} = (C_{x}/ C_{s})_{t}of sample(x)to standard(s)seawater in a dual-cell, continuous-flow system. The new salinometer requires only 10 ml of unknown and much less of standard, drawn from the source bottles through fine Teflon tubes, to obtain complete flushing and several repeat readings to the order ofpm0.001, in salinity. The system is autobalancing over the full range of conductivity ratio from 0 to 1.3 and in the future will be direct reading in salinity units. The amount of standard water required is so low that standard water ampoules, at the rate of l/day, can be used as the source. The method used offers a possibility of a direct measurement of salinity in the ocean by measuringR_{t}in situ.     

船载CTD仪与自动剖面浮标观测资料质量初探

海洋科学的发展离不开精确的数据,然而各种海洋观测仪器在复杂的海洋环境中作业难免产生测量误差,导致观测数据需要进行实时(或延时)质量控制。中国Argo计划在搭载多个航次布放剖面浮标的同时,对航次中获取的船载CTD(conductivity, temperature, and depth)仪观测资料、自动剖面浮标观测资料以及实验室高精度盐度计测量数据进行了实时比对。分析结果显示,利用实验室高精度盐度计对现场观测数据尤其是船载CTD仪观测资料进行质量控制,于温盐数据(特别是深层)的实时/延时校正非常重要;如某航次未经标定的船载CTD仪所测1000dbar以深范围内海水盐度,与实验室高精度盐度计的差值达到±0.1左右,远远落后于国内海洋调查规范对盐度准确度±0.02的一级测量要求,该具体实例更加突显了船载CTD仪在航次前后送往权威部门进行检测的必要性和重要性,从而确保每个航次获取的CTD资料的质量。建议有条件的情况下,在进行深海大洋船载CTD仪观测时要进行现场实验室高精度盐度计的质量控制工作及比对试验,以提高我国深海大洋观测数据的质量。     

The electrical conductivity of weight diluted and concentrated standard seawater as a function of salinity and temperature

The ratiosR_{s,t,o}of electrical conductivity of seawater samples of precisely known salinity to standard seawater at the same temperature have been measured over a wide range of salinities from 0 to42permilS and over the full range of oceanic temperatures from -2 to35degC. The samples withS<35permilwere prepared by accurate weight dilution of standard seawater with distilled water. High salinity samples were prepared by fast evaporation of standard seawater and subsequent weight dilution into the already determined <35permilrange. An equation was derived which expresses the S versusR_{s,t,o}relationship very precisely from1-42permiland at all temperatures, i.e.,S = f_{1}(R_{s,t,o}) + f_{2}(R_{s, t,o},t) =Sigma_{n=0}^{5} a_{n}R^{n/2}+ frac{Delta t}{1+kDelta t} Sigma_{n=0}^{5} b_{n}R^{n/2}whereDelta t = t-15degC,R = R_{s, t.o}; only the first termf_{1}is required at15degC. The effeet of temperature on the electrical conductivity of standard seawater was also measured. The ratior_{t}of the conductivity at temperaturetto the conductivity at15degC (C_{35,t, o}/C_{35,15,o}) is very aeenrately expressed by a fourth degree equation int. i.e,r_{t}=Sigma_{n=0}^{4} c_{n}t^{n}These two equations are sufficient for all salinity determinations at normal atmospheric pressure.     

海水温盐深剖面测量技术综述

温盐深是反应海洋物理学特性的重要参数,是海洋水文观测的基本要素。CTD剖面仪(Conductivity-Temperature-Depth profiler)是进行海水温盐剖面观测的主要仪器,利用CTD剖面仪可精确测得水下不同深度上海水的温度和电导率参数,进而能够推算出海水盐度、密度、声速等相关信息,对于海洋经济开发、海上国防建设、海洋环境保护等都具有非常重要的意义。本文介绍了温盐深剖面测量技术的基本原理与发展现状,对几种典型的温盐深测量设备及各种海洋观测平台中搭载的CTD传感器进行了介绍,论述了CTD传感器的标定和测试技术,并对其发展趋势进行了分析。     

Tower-based backscatter measurements of the sea

In September 1979, the radar scattering coefficient (sigmadeg) was measured at platform Noordwijk in the North Sea 10 km off the Dutch coast. This was done in conjunction with similar measurements by Dutch and French investigators as part of Project MARSEN (Marine Remote Sensing). Our measurements were made with vertical and horizontal polarizations, in the frequency baud 9-17 GHz, at incidence angles0deg - 70deg, with wind speeds from 2-22 m/s, and look directions upwind, downwind, and crosswind. This paper presents the scattering-coefficient variation with these radar and ocean parameters. In particular, the exponents for the windspeed response are compared with those from other investigators. Some of the exponents reported here are higher than reported previously, possibly because orthogonal regression was used rather than regression ofsigmadegversus windspeed.     

Roughness correction method for salinity remote sensing using combined active/passive observations

Roughness-induced emission from ocean surfaces is one of the main issues that affects the retrieval accuracy of sea surface salinity remote sensing. In previous studies, the correction of roughness effect mainly depended on wind speeds retrieved from scatterometers or those provided by other means, which necessitates a high requirement for accuracy and synchronicity of wind-speed measurements. The aim of this study is to develop a novel roughness correction model of ocean emissivity for the salinity retrieval application. The combined active/passive observations of normalized radar cross-sections (NRCSs) and emissivities from ocean surfaces given by the L-band Aquarius/SAC-D mission, and the auxiliary wind directions collocated from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) dataset are used for model development. The model is validated against the observations and the Aquarius standard algorithms of roughness-induced emissivity correction. Comparisons between model computations and measurements indicate that the model has better accuracy in computing wind-induced brightness temperature in the upwind/downwind directions or for the surfaces with smaller NRCSs, which can be better than 0.3 K. However, for crosswind directions and larger NRCSs, the model accuracy is relatively low. A model using HH-polarized NRCSs yields better accuracy than that using VV-polarized ones. For a fair comparison to the Aquarius standard algorithms using wind speeds retrieved from multi-source data, the maximum likelihood estimation is employed to produce results combining our model calculations and those using other sources. Numerical simulations show that combined results basically have higher accuracy than the standard algorithms.     

基于微波遥感技术海面盐度反演方法

海面盐度(sea surface salinity,SSS)是研究海洋变化及其气候效应重要的物理量,对海洋生态环境、海洋可持续发展至关重要.为了提高海面盐度反演精度,本文通过对SMAP卫星L波段微波辐射计测量的亮温数据进行海面盐度反演研究,考虑风、浪等影响海面粗糙度的环境因子对Klein-Shift模型(简称K-S模型...     

Four years of low-altitude sea ice broad-band backscatter measurements

The ability to use radar to discriminate Arctic Sea ice types has been investigated using surface-based and helicopter-borne scatterometer systems. The surface-based FM/CW radar operated at 1.5 GHz and at multiple frequencies in the 8-18-GHz region. Measurements were made at angles of10degto70degfrom nadir. The helicopter-based radar operated at the 8-18-GHz frequencies with incidence angles of0degto60deg. Extensive surface-truth measurements were made at or near the time of backscattar measurement to describe the physical and electrical properties of the polar scene. Measurements in the 8-18-GHz region verify the ability to discriminate multiyear, thick first-year, thin first-year, and pressure-ridged sea ice and lake ice. The lowest frequency, 9 GHz, was found to provide the greatest contrast between these ice categories, with significant levels of separation existing between angles from15degto70deg. The radar cross sections for like antenna polarizations, VV and HH, were very similar in absolute level and angular response. Cross-polarization, VH and HV, provided the greatest contrast between ice types, The 1.5-GHz measurements showed that thick first-year, thin first-year, and multiyear sea ice cannot be distinguished at10degto60degincidence angles with like polarization, VV, by backscatter alone; but that undeformed sea ice can be discriminated from pressure-ridged ice and lake ice. The effect of snow cover on the backscatter from thick first-year ice was also investigated. It contributes on the order of 0 to 4 dB, depending on frequency and incidence angle; the contribution of the snow layer increased with increasing frequency. Snow cover on smooth lake ice was found to be a major backscatter mechanism. Summer measurements demonstrate the inability to extend the knowledge of the backscatter from sea ice under spring conditions to all seasons.     

UCTD海上比测方法探讨

在海洋勘测工作中,对于海洋动力学参量--电导率、温度、深度的测量是最为基础和重要的监测内容.拖曳式温盐深剖面测量系统(Underway Conductivity Temperature Depth Measure System,简称UCTD)是最新发展起来的一种高技术走航CTD剖面测量装置.文中介绍了UCTD海上定点比...     

海表面盐度的高精度预测模型

为了建立高精度的海洋表面盐度预测模型,采用BP神经网络的方法,针对SMOS卫星level 1C级亮度温度数据和辅助数据建立了一种海表面盐度预测模型,以ARGO浮标观测值作为海表盐度实测值来检验新模型预测结果的准确度,同时利用验证集对模型的精度进行验证.结果表明:通过新模型预测的海表盐度(SSS0)比SMOS卫星的3个粗...     

Methodical and algorithmic metrological aspects of the development and operation of hydrostatic CTD sea-level meters

By using the relationships between the measurement error of hydrostatic CTD sea-level meters, the errors of measuring channels of hydrostatic pressure, temperature, and conductivity, and the errors of determination of the gravitational acceleration, we estimate the admissible measurement errors for separate channels. Simplified relations for the evaluation of salinity and density of water corresponding to the class of accuracy of the level meter are presented. Possible differences between the readings of the level meters mounted at coastal level-measuring posts and the actual sea level in the coastal zone caused by the weak water exchange in the sea-well system are estimated. __________ Translated from Morskoi Gidrofizicheskii Zhurnal, No. 1, pp. 62–76, January–February, 2006.     

一种浮力式盐度计

于１９９５年综合应用液体浮力←→密度←→盐度←→溶液性质等原理研制浮力式盐度计,该盐度计具有操作简单,测试快速、不用电源和试剂、使用前无需标准海水标定、测试值不受样品成分变化影响的特点;其测增精度可达克纽森滴定法,适用于一般工业化生产,水产养殖、港湾河口区调查等．     

海洋岛附近海域春季海洋水文测量结果分析

利用2006年4月在海洋岛附近海域的CTD测量资料,系统分析了该海域温度、盐度、密度和声速的平面分布和垂直分布特征,并探讨了其形成机理。分析指出:4月份是海洋岛附近海域季节性跃层的生成期,海区会产生正跃层、逆跃层、冷中间层、暖中间层等复杂的垂直结构;中间层和底层水文要素受海流的影响较大,而表层水文要素主要受海面风场和气温的影响。     

Active microwave measurement from space of sea-surface winds

Radar backscatter measurements from the ocean were made at 13.9 GHz from Skylab. The radar signal increased rapidly with wind speed over the entire range of winds encountered, and for angles of incidence of30degand larger. Signals observed were normalized to a nominal incidence angle (from values withinpm2degof the nominal) and to a nominal upwind observation direction, using a theoretical model that has been verified as approximately true with aircraft experiments. The wind speed was regressed against the resulting scattering coefficientssigma^{0}and the values ofbetain windpropto sigma^{0beta}were obtained for incident angles of1deg , 17deg , 32deg , 43deg,and50deg, and for vertical, horizontal, and cross polarizations. For the three larger angles,betavaries from 0.3 to 0.6. Observations during the summer and winter Skylab missions were treated separately because of possible differences caused by an accident to the antenna between the two sets of observations. The results are in general agreement with the theory [26] in all cases, with the winter and cross-polarized agreement somewhat better than that for summer like-polarized data. The "objective analysis" method used for determining "surface-truth" winds in the Skylab experiment was tested by comparing results obtained at weather ships (using all other ship reports to produce the analysis) with the observations made by the weather ships themselves. In most cases, the variance about the regression line between objective analysis and weather-ship data actually exceeded that about the regression line between objective analysis and backscattcr data!     

A numerically effective calculation of sea water density

Accurate density calculation that includes pressure effects is achieved with negligible computational cost in the context of three-dimensional ocean modelling. Local linear (or quadratic) fits to the full UNESCO (Anon, 1981) equation of state can be used in many model applications where the potential temperature and salinity at a model grid point vary slightly in each model time step. The local polynomial fit is achieved by computing a Taylor series expansion about a local reference state. The terms in the Taylor series are calculated analytically for optimal accuracy and minimal computational cost. All calculations can be done with single precision arithmetic, without compromising accuracy. In a three-dimensional nonhydrostatic ocean model applied to a deep convection problem, the local density calculation reduced the total computational cost of the model by 7% relative to that when the full UNESCO density calculation was used. The computational advantage is 15% for an application in which the nonhydrostatic part of the calculation is turned off. The computational advantage is, however, a function of the nature of both the model being used and the problem being solved.The principal algorithms are coded in Fortran 90, fortran 77, and as Matlab functions. The complete set of routines and test programs is coded in Fortran 90.     

Differential diffusion: an oceanographic primer

Even where mean gradients of temperature T and salinity S are both stabilizing, it is possible for the larger molecular diffusivity of T to result in differential diffusion, the preferential transfer of T relative to S. The present note reviews existing evidence of differential diffusion as provided by laboratory experiments, numerical simulations, and oceanic observations. Given potentially serious implications for proper interpretation of estimates of diapycnal density diffusivity from both ocean microscale measurements and ocean tracer release experiments, as well as the sensitivity of predictive global ocean models to this diffusive parameter, it is essential that this process be better understood in the oceanographic context.     

A regression method for estimating salinity in the Ocean

Specification of salinity is an important problem in initialization of the global ocean circulation models. Unlike the temperature, the salinity data in the World Ocean are irregular and nonuniform; thus, methods for estimating the salinity using pleutiful temperature data are urgently needed. A new regression method for estimating the salinity in the ocean is suggested in this paper. Unlike similar currently known approaches, the method suggested applies a set of polynomials and their powers invariant for the entire ocean, while the latter is divided into a number of study subregions for the estimates. The best-fit regression curves and the minimal errors of the salinity estimates are found for each of the regions. The method uses the World Oceanographic Database (WOD-2001 NODC NOAA) to determine the regression coefficients and the confidence intervals (RCCI). A special RCCI database was organized on the basis of these data. The RCCI database makes possible determination of the salinity at any point in the ocean if the temperature data are provided (measurements, XBT profiles, etc.). A realization of the method suggested is demonstrated by the example of the Atlantic Ocean.