Temporal Oscillations in the Convective Boundary Layer Forced by Mesoscale Surface Heat-Flux Variations

A theoretical approach suggests that the surface heterogeneity on a scale of tens of kilometres can generate mesoscale motions that are not in a quasi-stationary state. The starting point of the theoretical approach is the equations of horizontal velocity and potential temperature that are low-pass filtered with a mesoscale cut-off wavelength. The transition of the generated mesoscale motions from a quasi-stationary state to a non-stationary state occurs when horizontal advection is strong enough to level out the potential temperature gradient on the surface heterogeneity scale. Large-eddy simulations (LES) suggest that the convective boundary layer (CBL) changes to a non-stationary state when forced by a surface heat-flux variation of amplitude of 100W m⁻² or higher and a wavelength of the order of 10 km. Spectral analysis of the LES reveals that when the mesoscale motions are in a quasi-stationary state, the energy provided by the surface heat-flux variation remains in organized mesoscale motions on the scale of the surface variation itself. However, in a non-stationary state, the energy cascades to smaller scales, with the cascade extending down into the turbulence scale when the wavelength of the surface heat-flux variation is on a scale smaller than 100 times the CBL height. The energy transfer from the generated mesoscale motions to the CBL turbulence results in the absence of a spectral gap between the two scales. The absence of an obvious spectral gap between the generated mesoscale motions and the turbulence raises questions about the applicability of mesoscale models for studies on the effect of high-amplitude surface heterogeneity on a scale of tens of kilometres. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

Effects of Mesoscale Surface Thermal Heterogeneity on Low-Level Horizontal Wind Speeds

Using large-eddy simulation, we investigate characteristics of horizontal wind speed at 100 m above the ground, with surface heat-flux variations that are sinusoidal with amplitudes of 0, 50, and 200 W m⁻² and wavelengths of 16, 32, and 128 km, and no background flow. When the amplitude is 200 W m⁻², wind speeds induced by the surface-flux variations on scales of 16 and/or 32 km have multiple temporal oscillations from 0600 to 1800 local standard time. The positive peaks first appear before noon. In contrast, for wind speeds induced by the 128-km surface heterogeneity, a single oscillation occurs in the late afternoon, which is much larger than those generated by the 16- and 32-km surface heterogeneity. In addition, at the oscillation onset the kurtosis of the velocity increment over a distance of 1 km significantly increases, which implies intermittency in the generation of 1-km scale eddies. The spatially intermittent energy cascade generated by surface heterogeneity scaled down to 1-km eddies is analogous to the well-known intermittent energy cascade in the inertial subrange. The kurtosis of the 1-km eddies is much larger with the 128-km surface heterogeneity than with the 16- and 32-km heterogeneities. Thus we conclude that localized rapid changes of low-level horizontal wind speed may be caused by significant local surface heterogeneity on scales between a few tens and a few hundreds of kilometres.     

Impact of Land Surface Heterogeneity on Mesoscale Atmospheric Dispersion

Prior numerical modelling studies show that atmospheric dispersion is sensitive to surface heterogeneities, but past studies do not consider the impact of a realistic distribution of surface heterogeneities on mesoscale atmospheric dispersion. While these focussed on dispersion in the convective boundary layer, the present work also considers dispersion in the nocturnal boundary layer and above. Using a Lagrangian particle dispersion model (LPDM) coupled to the Eulerian Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS), the impact of topographic, vegetation, and soil moisture heterogeneities on daytime and nighttime atmospheric dispersion is examined. In addition, the sensitivity to the use of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-derived spatial distributions of vegetation characteristics on atmospheric dispersion is also studied. The impact of vegetation and terrain heterogeneities on atmospheric dispersion is strongly modulated by soil moisture, with the nature of dispersion switching from non-Gaussian to near-Gaussian behaviour for wetter soils (fraction of saturation soil moisture content exceeding 40%). For drier soil moisture conditions, vegetation heterogeneity produces differential heating and the formation of mesoscale circulation patterns that are primarily responsible for non-Gaussian dispersion patterns. Nighttime dispersion is very sensitive to topographic, vegetation, soil moisture, and soil type heterogeneity and is distinctly non-Gaussian for heterogeneous land-surface conditions. Sensitivity studies show that soil type and vegetation heterogeneities have the most dramatic impact on atmospheric dispersion. To provide more skilful dispersion calculations, we recommend the utilisation of satellite-derived vegetation characteristics coupled with data assimilation techniques that constrain soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer (SVAT) models to generate realistic spatial distributions of surface energy fluxes.     

对流层低层偏东风对北京局地暴雨的作用

本文利用风廓线仪、地面自动站观测资料及NCAR/NCEP 1°×1°分析资料等,对北京地区两次局地暴雨天气过程的对流层低层偏东风进行了对比分析研究,重点分析了浅薄和深厚两次偏东风的形成机制、偏东风的垂直结构特征和温、湿特性,以及偏东风在北京局地暴雨中的作用等。主要结论如下:(1)浅薄偏东风活动在距地面高度500 m 以下,水平尺度约250 km,时间尺度约12 h, 地面风速平均约1 m/s;深厚偏东风活动在距地面高度3000 m 以下,水平尺度大于600 km,持续时间大于24 h,地面风速平均约4 m/s。(2)浅薄偏东风由边界层内浅薄的次天气尺度暖性低涡引起,深厚偏东风由天气尺度地面暖性低压倒槽的发展引起。(3)偏东风具有高相当位温的属性,其源地是北京东部或东南部的暖湿气团;在暖湿偏东风上方800～600 hPa 存在干冷空气活动,形成了有利的对流不稳定层结;浅薄偏东风暖湿能量的局地集中特征更为显著,而深厚偏东风在水汽和能量的持续输送方面,以及与500 hPa 偏西风形成较强的、有利于强对流风暴发展的低层垂直风切变方面作用更为显著。(4)浅薄偏东风在时间和空间上与近地面层辐合中心对应较好,与中高空辐散有较好配合,动力作用明显,直接起到了对流风暴的触发机制作用;深厚偏东风与辐合中心对应较差,与垂直运动及上层辐散也没有很好的配合,与对流风暴的触发没有直接的关系。但是深厚偏东风在对流层低层对应厚达3000 m 的潮湿空气层,削弱了雨滴下落过程中产生的蒸发降温作用,有利于对流的发展和维持。     

中尺度模式对冬季兰州市低空风场和温度场的数值模拟

利用美国NCAR新一代中尺度模式MM5V3，对山谷城市兰州冬季风场和温度场进行了数值模拟研究。模拟结果与现有理论及观测事实基本一致。表明MM5V3中尺度模式可用于研究山谷城市的大气边界层情况，模式能够较好地模拟山谷城市冬季边界层的风场和温度场特征，模拟结果分析表明，位于河谷盆地内的兰州，冬季近地面风场是山谷风环流和城市热岛环流共同作用的结果，冬季夜间地面流场辐合明显，低空盛行东风，夜间距地300m左右，风向转变为偏西风，白天风向转变高度高于夜间，大约在500m以上；冬季温度场逆温特征明显。     

Application of FY-2C Cloud Drift Winds in a Mesoscale Numerical Model

Statistical tests and error analysis of cloud drift winds(CDWs) from the FY-2C satellite were made by using radiosonde observations.According to the error characteristics of the CDW,a bias correction using the thermal wind theory was applied in the data quality control.The CDW data were then assimilated into the GRAPES-meso model via the GRAPES-3DVar.A torrential rain event that occurred in northwestern China during 1-2 July 2005 was simulated.The results indicate that the CDW data were mainly distribute...     

地面风诊断模式的数值试验和模拟

本文用一个简化的一层地面风数值诊断模式，在台湾岛及海峡地区对6个个例进行了数值试验。结果表明，假定的地形影响层较厚时，地面流场中台湾岛周围的流线更趋于与地形线平行，地形效应更明显；地表粗糙度增大时，地面风向逆时针偏转，风速减小；考虑非绝热加热后，地面流场中分流现象明显减弱，并在山脊附近形成辐合线，同时岛后辐合减弱甚至消失；而地形高度的动力作用则是分流、绕流和岛后辐合等现象的内在根源。在上述研究基础上，对同样个例进行了数值模拟。结果在一定程度上反映了实际风场。     

On the Effect of Surface Heat-Flux Heterogeneities on the Mixed-Layer-Top Entrainment

We used a set of large-eddy simulations to investigate the effect of one-dimensional stripe-like surface heat-flux heterogeneities on mixed-layer top entrainment. The profiles of sensible heat flux and the temporal evolution of the boundary-layer depth revealed decreased entrainment for small heat-flux amplitudes and increased entrainment for large heat-flux amplitudes, compared to the homogeneously-heated mixed layer. For large heat-flux amplitudes the largest entrainment was observed for patch sizes in the order of the boundary-layer depth, while for significantly smaller or larger patch sizes entrainment was similar as in the homogeneous case. In order to understand the underlying physics of this impact, a new approach was developed to infer local information on entrainment by means of the local flux divergence. We found an entrainment maximum over the centre of the stronger heated surface patch, where thermal energy is accumulated by the secondary circulation (SC) that was induced by the surface heterogeneity. Furthermore, we observed an entrainment maximum over the less heated patch as well, which we suppose is to be linked to the SC-induced horizontal flow convergence at the top of the convective boundary layer (CBL). For small heat-flux amplitudes a counteracting effect dominates that decreases entrainment, which we suppose is the horizontal advection of cold air in the lower, and warm air in the upper, CBL by the SC, stabilizing the CBL and thus weakening thermal convection. Moreover, we found that a mean wind can reduce the heterogeneity-induced impact on entrainment. If the flow is aligned perpendicular to the border between the differentially-heated patches, the SC and thus its impact on entrainment vanishes due to increased horizontal mixing, even for moderate wind speeds. However, if the flow is directed parallel to the border between the differentially-heated patches, the SC and thus its impact on entrainment persists.     

Low-Level Wind Forecast over the La Plata River Region with a Mesoscale Boundary-Layer Model Forced by Regional Operational Forecasts

A mesoscale boundary-layer model (BLM) is used for running 12-h low-level wind forecasts for the La Plata River region. Several experiments are performed with different boundary conditions that include operational forecasts of the Eta/CPTEC model, local observations, as well as a combination of both. The BLM wind forecasts are compared to the surface wind observations of five weather stations during the period November 2003–April 2004. Two accuracy measures are used: the hit rate or percentage of cases with agreement in the wind direction sector, and the root-mean-squared error (RMSE) of the horizontal wind components. The BLM surface wind forecasts are always more accurate, since its averaged hit rate is three times greater and its averaged RMSE is one half smaller than the Eta forecasts. Despite the large errors in the surface winds displayed by the Eta forecasts, its 850 hPa winds and surface temperature forecasts are able to drive the BLM model to obtain surface winds forecasts with smaller errors than the Eta model. An additional experiment demonstrates that the advantage of using the BLM model for forecasting low-level winds over the La Plata River region is the result of a more appropriate definition of the land–river surface temperature contrast. The particular formulation that the BLM model has for the geometry of the river coasts is fundamental for resolving the smaller scale details of the low-level local circulation. The main conclusion of the study is that operational low-level wind forecasts for the La Plata River region can be improved by running the BLM model forced by the Eta operational forecasts. L. Sraibman and G. J. Berri—Members of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) of Argentina. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Impact of Air Pollution on Summer Surface Winds in Xi''an

By analysis of observation data,this paper demonstrates that pollution particles could reduce surface wind speed through blocking solar radiation to the ground.The comparation between temperature at the lowland meteorological station Xi'an and that over the nearby highland station Mt.Hun suggests that surface solar radiation at Xi'an is reduced due to the increasing anthropogenic aerosols.The reduced surface energy suppresses the atmospheric instability and convective flows,and thus the downward transfer of faster winds aloft is reduced.Consequently,wind speeds near surface are weakened.This reduction of surface winds is shown by the significant reverse trends of wind speeds over the two stations at different elevations.The aerosols' effects on winds are also manifested in the trends of radionsonde wind speed.The decreased surface winds in Xi'an have also reduced local pan evaporation.     

Verification of a Synthesized Method for the Calculation of Low-Level Climatological Wind Fields Using a Mesoscale Boundary-Layer Model

Low-level climatological wind fields over the La Plata River region of South America are synthesized with a dry, hydrostatic mesoscale boundary-layer numerical model. The model is forced at the upper boundary with the 1200 UTC local radiosonde observations and at the lower boundary with a land-river differential heating function defined from the daily meteorological observations of the region. The climatological wind field is defined as the mean value of a series of individual daily forecasts, employing two methods. The simplified method considers a 192-member ensemble (16 wind directions and 12 wind-speed classes at the upper boundary). Each member has a probability of occurrence that is determined from the 1959–1984 observations; the daily method uses a total of 3,248 days with available data during the same period. In both methods each realization is a daily forecast from which the mean wind distributions at 0300, 0900, 1500 and 2100 local standard time are calculated and compared to the observations of five meteorological stations in the region. The validation of the climatological wind fields for both methods is evaluated by means of the root-mean-square error of the wind-direction frequency distribution and mean wind speed by wind sector. The results obtained with the two methods are similar, and the errors in wind speed are always smaller than those in wind direction. The combined errors of wind direction and wind speed show that the ensemble method is outperformed by the daily method, on average by meteorological station in only one out of five of them, and on average by the time of the day in only one out of 4 h. The conclusion of the study is that the ensemble method is an appropriate methodology for determining high resolution, low-level climatological wind fields, with the boundary-layer model applied to a region with a strong diurnal cycle of surface thermal contrast. The proposed methodology is of particular utility for synthesizing wind fields over regions with limited meteorological observations, since the 192-member matrix can be easily defined with few observing points, as well as in the case of relatively incomplete records.     

地形性中尺度环流的数值模拟及验证

建立了一个高分辨三维边界层诊断模式以模拟下垫面热力和动力的 非均匀性对边界层结构的影响。模式模拟了广东大亚湾核电站厂址区域（12 km×12 km） 47个典型天气系统下的地形性中尺度环流,其大坑的模拟风向、风速和温度与观测值 相比,风向差小于17.5#+[o]的概率为87.5%,风速比值在0.7～1.3之间的概率为72.9%, 温度差小于0.4#+[o]C的概率为72.9%。     

Identification of Von Karman Vortices in the Surface Winds of Heard Island

Heard Island (73°30' E, 53°05' S) is an isolated island inthe sub-Antarctic located in a region of strong westerly winds. The dominanttopographic feature is a large glaciated volcano, which peaks at 2,745 m inaltitude. Only limited meteorological information exists for the island, withincomplete records from a station at Atlas Cove covering the period 1948 to1954, and from a station at The Spit from 1992 onwards. We present the resultsof wind observations that were conducted on Dovers Moraine at the eastern endof Heard Island over the 2000/2001 summer, with the aim of characterising localwinds at this location on the island. Wind was measured using a Woelfle typemechanical wind recorder. Wind speed was comparable, and on occasions stronger,at this location compared to simultaneous records at the western end of the island.Winds were predominantly from the south-south-west, or north-north-west to north.A number of periods of relatively low wind speed coincided with repeated winddirection patterns, which we associate with the surface signature of von Karmanvortices. Results from this study suggest there are significant topographically-generated differences in wind characteristics between the eastern and western ends of the island.     

Role of Downward Momentum Transport in the Formation of Severe Surface Winds

The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model was used to investigate the role of downward momentum transport in the formation of severe surface winds for a squall line on 3-4 June 2009 across regions of the Henan and Shandong Provinces of China. The results show that there was a strong westerly jet belt with a wind speed greater than 30 m s 1 and a thickness of 5 km at an altitude of 11-16 km. The jet belt was accelerated, and it descended while the squall line convective system occurred. It was found that the appearance of strong negative perturbation pressure accompanied by the squall line caused the acceleration of the upper-level westerly jet and increased the horizontal wind speed by a maximum of 18%. Meanwhile, the negative buoyancy due to the loading, melting, and evaporation of cloud hydrometeors induced the downward momentum transport from the upper levels. The downward momentum transport contributed approximately 70% and the surface cold pool 30% to the formation of severe surface winds.     

引发黄渤海大风的黄河气旋诊断研究

利用NCEP/NCAR1°×1°的再分析资料、常规观测资料和风云2E卫星云图资料,分析研究2011年4月26-27日突发性黄河气旋造成黄渤海大风的物理变化过程及诊断黄河气旋发生、发展的物理机制.结果表明:这次大风是在欧亚中高纬环流发生调整,高纬不稳定小槽东移发展及东亚大槽重建的过程中发生的.突发性强烈发展的黄河气旋使黄渤海产生强偏北大风.在气旋发展初期涡度平流起了主要作用,而在气旋发展中温度平流又起了主要作用;冷锋上的斜压性对于气旋发生发展起着重要作用,斜压性有利于有效位能的释放、动能制造及气旋加强;气旋始终位于Q矢量散度梯度最大区域,有利的动力和热力条件使得能量积累,促使气旋前期发展、后期维持.高空偏西急流和低空偏南急流的相互耦合,低空暖湿气流的热力强迫,使得低层大气产生强上升运动,黄河气旋强烈发展.变压梯度、气压梯度、高空风动量下传和超低空急流的偏差风辐散的共同作用,形成黄渤海强风.     

A Note on the Drag of the Sea Surface at Hurricane Winds

Based on the solution of the turbulent kinetic energy balance equation for the airflow in the regime of limited saturation by suspended sea-spray droplets, some experimental evidence, and simple arguments, a resistance law of the sea surface at hurricane winds is derived. It predicts the reduction of the drag coefficient for the wind speed exceeding hurricane values of 30–40 m s ^-1 in agreement with field data.     

次天气尺度与中尺度正、斜压模演变揭示的武汉暴雨过程

利用滤波原理提取出大气流场中的次天气尺度和中尺度信息，再把大尺度和中尺度水平风场分别分解为正压分量（垂直平均）和斜压分量（扰动）流场。对1998年7月21～22日发生在武汉附近的强暴雨过程进行了次天气尺度与中尺度流场正、斜压分量演变特征的分析。结果表明：次天气尺度与中尺度流场正压分量的演变与此次强暴雨的酝酿、发展和消亡具有内在的联系；次天气尺度与中尺度流场高层200hPa斜压分量很强，低层850hPa正压分量很强；次天气尺度与中尺度流场斜压性占主导地位，随着暴雨的发展，中尺度流场的正压性减弱而斜压性进一步增强，而次天气尺度流场的正压性增强而斜压性减弱。以上结论对于揭示中尺度暴雨过程发生发展的本质有一定的意义。