Volatile content and degassing processes in the AD 79 magma chamber at Vesuvius (Italy)

The evolution of volatiles in the AD 79 magma chamber at Vesuvius (Italy) was investigated through the study of melt inclusions (MI) in crystals of different origins. FTIR spectroscopy and EMPA were used to measure H₂O, CO₂, S and Cl of the different melts. This allowed us to define the volatile content of the most evolved, phonolitic portion of the magma chamber and of the mafic melts feeding the chamber. MI in sanidine from phonolitic and tephri-phonolitic pumices show systematic differences in composition and volatile content, which can be explained by resorption of the host mineral during syn-eruptive mixing. The pre-eruption content of phonolitic magma appears to have been dominated by H₂O and Cl (respectively 6.0 to 6.5 wt% and 6700 ppm), while magma chamber refilling occurred through the repeated injection of H₂O, CO₂ and S-rich tephritic magmas (respectively 3%, 1500 ppm and 1400 ppm). Strong CO₂ degassing probably occurred during the decompressional path of mafic batches towards the magma chamber, while sulphur was probably released by the magma following crystallization and mixing processes. Water and chlorine strongly accumulated in the magma and reached their solubility limits only during the eruption. Chlorine solubility appears to have been strongly compositionally controlled, and Cl release was inhibited by groundmass crystallization of leucite, which shifted the composition of the residual liquid towards higher Cl solubilities. Received: 28 October 1999 / Accepted: 21 April 2000     

The role of water in the 1944 Vesuvius eruption

The P-T path of magma associated with the 1944 Vesuvius eruption has been outlined on the basis of probe mineralogy and the relationships between the crystallising phases. Equilibrium P-T values, obtained from the reactions:

1. CaMgSi₂O_6(liq) = CaMgSi₂O_6(cpx)
2. NaAlSi₃O_{8 (liq)} = NaAlSi₃O_{8 (plag)}
3. CaAl₂Si₂O_{8 (plag)}=CaAl₂SiO_6(cpx)+SiO_2(liq) have been established for three intracrustal crystallisation stages: I) 8.0 kbar and 1255 °C; II) 4.0 kbar and 1178 °C; III) 0.5 kbar and 1105 °C.

The H₂O content in the magma has been estimated from an experimental calibration of \(a_{^{CaMgSi_2 O_6 } }^{liq}\) as a function of \(X_{H_2 O}^{liq}\) at P _tot = 2 kbar. The estimated water contents of the magma for the three stages, I) 0.7%; II) 0.9%; III) 1.1%, are consistent with the pattern of activity of the 1944 Vesuvius eruption and with the relationship between the lavas. The shallow depth of H₂O-saturation of the magma, 0.24 kbar at 1100 °C, is consistent with the eruption sequence of lava flows followed by lava fountain activity.     

Time and space dependency in impact damage evaluation of a sub-Plinian eruption at Mount Vesuvius

The volcanic eruptions have produced death and devastation along the ages; the victims caused by the documented events are about 260,000. Today, people subjected to volcanic risk are 500 million. They live predominantly in large conurbations, such as Tokyo, Mexico City, Seattle and Naples, which are located in the proximity of volcanoes with a high probability to erupt. Further, cause of concern is the elevated growth rates of the urban populations in the developing countries, seeing that many cities are located just above the tectonic belts where are predominantly situated the World’s most explosive volcanoes. Therefore, the volcanic risk mitigation of these areas requires a careful territorial planning together with an adequate knowledge of the behaviour of constructions under the eruption effects. The problem is very complex considering that a several number of actions (such as lavas, earthquakes, ash fall, pyroclastic flows, ballistics, landslides, tsunami and lahars) with a peculiar time–space distribution are produced by an eruptive event. Moreover, for the impact evaluation of a volcanic eruption, the time–space effect acquires a great importance, differently by the case of single catastrophic event (such as tectonic earthquakes, debris flows, etc.), since the sequence of the several exceptional actions which occur during an eruptive event, that modify the resistance characteristics of the struck constructions, in consequence, the impact damage evaluation requires analyses, step by step, of the eruptive process, the damage accumulated on the buildings and the distribution of the damage on the territory. All these aspects are examined in this paper which furnishes a useful compendium relating to the impact damage assessment produced on buildings by an explosive volcanic eruption, through the time–space variability analysis. This document organically summarizes the results of about 15 years of researches conducted by the PLINIVS Study Centre (Study Centre for the Hydrogeological, Volcanic and Seismic Engineering) with reference to the volcanic risk assessment, in the framework of the scientific literature on the topic. The paper analyses the probabilistic approaches used these days to treat Hazard, Vulnerability and Exposure in risk and impact evaluation of volcanic eruptions. Reliability of the model available is discussed; open problems and future improvement of the research in progress are highlighted. In conclusion, recommendations to follow for impact estimation studies in volcanology are reported.     

Compositional Layering and Syn-eruptive Mixing of a Periodically Refilled Shallow Magma Chamber: the AD 79 Plinian Eruption of Vesuvius

A detailed study of the pyroclastic deposits of the AD 79 ‘Pompei’Plinian eruption of Vesuvius has allowed: (1) reconstructionof the thermal, compositional and isotopic (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) pre-eruptivelayering of the shallow magma chamber; (2) quantitative definitionof the syn-eruptive mixing between the different magmas occupyingthe chamber, and its relationships with eruption dynamics; (3)recognition of the variability of mafic magma batches supplyingthe chamber. During the different phases of the eruption 25–30%of the magma was ejected as white K-phonolitic pumice, and 70–75%as grey K-tephri-phonolitic pumice. The white pumice resultsfrom the tapping of progressively deeper magma from a body (T= 850–900%C) consisting of two distinct layers mainlyformed by crystal fractionation. The grey pumice results fromsyn-eruptive mixing involving three main end-members: the phonolitic‘white’ magmas (salic end-member, SEM), mafic cumulates(cumulate end-member, CEM) and a crystal-poor ‘grey’phono-tephritic magma (mafic end-member, MEM), which was nevererupted without first being mixed with ‘white’ magma.Evidence is provided that mixing occurred within the chamberand was characterized by a transition with time from physicalmixing at a microscopic scale to chemical hybridization. TheMEM magma had a homogeneous composition and constant ⁸⁷Sr⁸⁶Srisotopic ratio, possibly as a result of sustained convection.No unambiguous liquidus phases were found, suggesting that theMEM magma was superheated (T = 1000–1100C); its verylow viscosity was a main cause in the establishment of a physicaldiscontinuity separating the white and the grey magmas. Thewhite-grey boundary layer possibly consisted of a multiply diffusiveinterface, periodically broken and recreated, supplying thephonolitic body through mixing of moderate amounts of fractionatedgrey melts with the overlying white magma. The presence of alarge overheated mass indicates the young, growing stage ofthe AD 79 chamber, whose main engine was the periodic arrivalof hot mafic magma batches. These were characterized by K-tephriticto K-basanitic compositions, high temperatures (>1150C),high volatile contents (20–25% H₂O +Cl+F+S), low viscosities[(1+2 10² poises)] and relatively low densities (2500–2600kg/m³). The birth of the Pompei chamber followed the repeatedarrival of these batches (on average characterized by ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr070729)into a reservoir containing a tephriticphonolitic, crystal-enriched,magma, a residue from the preceding ‘Avellino’ Plinianeruption (3400 BP).In fact, about half of magma ejected duringthe AD 79 eruption could have been inherited from pre-Avellinotimes. KEY WORDS: Vesuvius; magma chamber; magma mixing; compositional layering phonolites; magma supply; potassic magmas ^*Correponding author     

Transport and deposition of pyroclastic density currents over an inhabited area: the deposits of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius at Herculaneum, Italy

Geological and volcanological studies were performed in the Herculaneum excavations, 7 km west of Vesuvius, Italy, to reconstruct the main features of the pyroclastic density currents and the temporal sequence of the ad 79 eruptive events that destroyed and buried the town. The identification of two distinctive marker beds allows correlation of these deposits with the better‐known sequences to the south of Vesuvius, along the dispersal axis of the Plinian fall deposit. Detailed observations from stratigraphic sections show that the pyroclastic density current deposits are characterized by several sedimentary facies, each recording different depositional and emplacement mechanisms. Facies analysis reveals both lateral and vertical variations from massive to stratified deposits, which can be related to the combined effects of flow dynamics and local irregularities of the substratum at centimetre or metre scales. These topographic irregularities enhanced turbulence and allowed rapid transition from non‐turbulent to turbulent transport within the flow. Fabric data from these deposits, both from roof tile orientations and anisotropy magnetic susceptibility (AMS) analyses carried out on some of the pyroclastic deposits, suggest that the pyroclastic density currents were strongly affected by the presence of buildings. These obstacles probably caused deflection and separation of flows into multiple lobes that moved in different directions.     

Nuclear fuel cycle and its impact on the environment

In this paper, we consider the present-day situation and outlooks of the development of nuclear power generation in Russia and other countries. It was noted that the implementation of the concept of a closed nuclear-fuel cycle accepted in Russia relies on the solution of the problem of the disposal of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and radioactive waste (RAW). This paper presents the main results of investigations focused on the development of radiation-safe methods of manufacturing nuclear fuel elements, including mixed uranium–plutonium oxide fuel for fast-neutron reactors; creation of low waste-production technologies of SNF processing and RAW disposal; and the analysis of fundamental features of the behavior and speciation of radionuclides in environmental objects for the development of efficient methods of radioecological monitoring and remediation of radionuclide-contaminated areas.     

Behaviour of chlorine prior and during the 79 A.D. Plinian eruption of Vesuvius (southern Italy) as inferred from the present distribution in glassy mesostases and whole-pumices

This study deals with the distribution of chlorine in glassy mesostases and whole-pumices from the 79 A.D. Plinian eruption (Somma–Vesuvius volcanic complex, Italy). This explosive event produced a prominent Plinian fall deposit followed by flows and surges. The fall deposit can be divided into two sub-units on the basis of an abrupt change in colour at approximately mid-level: a phonolitic white pumice layer at the base and a tephriphonolitic grey pumice layer at the top. Due to its hybrid nature (a mixture of k-tephritic, tephriphonolitic and phonolitic magmas), information on chlorine behaviour in tephriphonolitic magma has been inferred only by means of mass balance calculations. In the white pumices, chlorine concentrations show constant whole-pumice values, whereas glassy mesostases display significant compositional variations. These variations have been linked to the cryptocrystallisation of leucite in glassy mesostases, which affected the original melt compositions just before and during the eruptive event. In this framework, whole-pumice appears to better represent the pre-eruptive melt compositions. Using chlorine concentration in whole-pumices, a three-stage model of chlorine behaviour prior and during the eruptive event is predicted: (i) free variation during Rayleigh fractionation, according to a system with variance greater than zero; (ii) exsolution of volatile chlorine compounds (e.g., metal chlorides), when chlorine reaches its solubility limit in silicate melt, in coexisting hyper-saline and in dilute immiscible fluids; the variance of the system is zero at a given temperature and pressure; (iii) residual syn-eruptive variable enrichment of chlorine in the melt due to cryptocrystallization of leucite, suggesting a very minor loss of chlorine in the gas phase during the eruption. Although chlorine does not behave as a volatile element during the eruption, it is present in the volcanic plume. This is due to the postulated ‘excess' fluid phase containing chlorine that formed in the magma chamber prior to the eruption. The homogeneous distribution of chlorine in whole pumices, in contrast with a well-established chemical and isotopic layering in Vesuvian magmas prior to Pompei eruption, suggests that the trace element zonation is not directly linked to chlorine distribution in silicic melts.     

The impact of incorrectly estimating factor productivity in agriculture on the environment and human health

 This paper explores the implications of a misspecification of the production function on the use of factor inputs in the context of the adoption of an alternative production practice (a technological innovation) designed to mitigate the impact of agricultural production on human health and the environment. It is demonstrated that if the level of the use of some inputs is considered rather than their consumptive use (i.e., the actual amount used by a plant), the productivity of the input is inaccurately measured. It is also demonstrated that an aggregate production function approach can lead to overestimation of the value of the marginal product of an input due to the frequently implicit assumptions that the output supply, output demand, and fertilizer demand are infinitely price elastic. The implications of the results are important for determining the optimal use of inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides which have known adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Received: 22 November 1996 · Accepted: 4 May 1998     

Some examples of mining in Ireland and its impact on the environment

This article is based on a paper presented at an International workshop in June 1986 on the impact of mining on the environment, held in Tallinn, Estonian SSR as part of the UNEP/UNESCO project entitled Geology and the Environment.     

Magma degassing during 7600 14C Kurile Lake caldera-forming eruption and its climatic impact

The main goal of this investigation is estimating volume of volatile emission, atmospheric and climatic impact of the Kurile Lake caldera-forming eruption, one of the Earth’s largest Holocene explosive eruptions. The volatile content of magma before the eruption was estimated by comparing H₂O, S, Cl and F contents in natural quenched glassy melt inclusions trapped by plagioclase phenocrysts. The volatile content of igneous rocks after eruption was estimated by comparing concentrations of degassed matrix glasses. As a result of KO-eruption not more than (3.7–4.2) × 10¹² kg of water, (4.3–4.9) × 10¹⁰ kg of chlorine, (8.6–9.8) × 10⁹ kg of fluorine and (2.6–2.9) × 10¹⁰ kg of sulphur were injected into the atmosphere. This eruption had to produce an important climatic impact.     

The impact of energy consumption on environment and public health in China

Fossil energy consumption is one of the main reasons for the deterioration of environmental pollution and decline in public health. This paper tests for the long-run and short-run relationship among energy consumption, environment pollution and public health using the autoregressive-distributed lag approach in China for the period 1985–2014. The study used energy consumption variables (i.e., the proportion of coal consumption, that of oil and clean energy, abbreviated as PCC, POIL and PCE, respectively), environmental pollution ones (i.e., SO₂ emissions, abbreviated SO₂, soot and dust emissions,), two health proxies (i.e., the proportion of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases mortality, abbreviated as PCD and PRD, respectively). These variables were selected due to vital importance in China. The overall results indicate that there was co-integration relationship under the study with statistically significantly positive relationship between environmental pollution and energy consumption, public health and environmental pollution in the short and long run. Comparing the long-run and short-run coefficients of energy use variable with respect to SO₂ and soot indicates that the long-run coefficients are the same as the short-run. The long-run coefficients of soot and dust emissions with respect to PCD and PRD, respectively, are higher than the short-run coefficients. This implies that environment pollution level is found to worsen with respect to fossil energy use presently and over time, while public health level descending with reference to soot and dust emission over time in China. The Granger causality results suggested a unidirectional Granger causality between energy use and environment pollution, environment pollution and public health. The results emphasized the importance of energy transformation and sustainable development policies that help to adjust the structure of energy consumption and to improve public health level.     

The global impact of the Minoan eruption of Santorini, Greece

 The Minoan eruption of Santorini was a large-magnitude natural event. However, in terms of scale it ranks smaller in erupted volume and eruptive intensity than the historical eruption of Tambora in 1815 AD, and smaller in sulphur emission and, by inference, climatic effects than both the Tambora and Mt. Pinatubo, 1991, eruptions. Eruption statistics for the past 2000 years indicate that Minoan-size eruptions typically occur at a rate of several per thousand years. Eruptions resulting in a Minoan-scale injection of sulphur to the stratosphere occur far more frequently – at a rate of one or two per century. Inferences of massive sociological, religious and political impacts from such eruptions owe more to mythology than reality. Received: 28 November 1995 · Accepted: 9 January 1996     

The impact environment of the Hadean Earth

Impact bombardment in the first billion years of solar system history determined in large part the initial physical and chemical states of the inner planets and their potential to host biospheres. The range of physical states and thermal consequences of the impact epoch, however, are not well quantified. Here, we assess these effects on the young Earth's crust as well as the likelihood that a record of such effects could be preserved in the oldest terrestrial minerals and rocks. We place special emphasis on modeling the thermal effects of the late heavy bombardment (LHB) – a putative spike in the number of impacts at about 3.9 Gyr ago – using several different numerical modeling and analytical techniques. A comprehensive array of impact-produced heat sources was evaluated which includes shock heating, impact melt generation, uplift, and ejecta heating. Results indicate that ∼1.5–2.5 vol.% of the upper 20 km of Earth's crust was melted in the LHB, with only ∼0.3–1.5 vol.% in a molten state at any given time. The model predicts that approximately 5–10% of the planet's surface area was covered by >1 km deep impact melt sheets. A global average of ∼600–800 m of ejecta and ∼800–1000 m of condensed rock vapor is predicted to have been deposited in the LHB, with most of the condensed rock vapor produced by the largest (>100-km) projectiles. To explore for a record of such catastrophic events, we created two- and three-dimensional models of post-impact cooling of ejecta and craters, coupled to diffusion models of radiogenic Pb*-loss in zircons. We used this to estimate what the cumulative effects of putative LHB-induced age resetting would be of Hadean zircons on a global scale. Zircons entrained in ejecta are projected to have the following average global distribution after the end of the LHB: ∼59% with no impact-induced Pb*-loss, ∼26% with partial Pb*-loss and ∼15% with complete Pb*-loss or destruction of the grain. In addition to the relatively high erodibility of ejecta, our results show that if discordant ca. 3.9 Gyr old zones in the Jack Hills zircons are a signature of the LHB, they were most likely sourced from impact ejecta.     

我国部分地区煤及煤矸石中汞的分布特征

采用原子荧光光谱仪测定了陕西、山西、云南、山东以及河南等地一些煤、电厂炉渣、飞灰等样品中汞元素的质量分数。检出限为0.01×10^-6。除淮南地区的个别样品外,多数样品中汞的质量分数处于世界多数煤和中国多数煤中Hg质量分数范围内,少数高于世界煤炭汞质量分数的平均值(0.02×10^-6~1.0×10^-6)。不同地层间、不同类型样品间汞的质量分数有较大差别:上石盒子组中的>山西组中的>太原组中的;飞灰中的汞质量分数明显大于炉渣中的汞质量分数;褐煤中的汞质量分数高于无烟煤中的。     

Changes of groundwater flow field of Luanhe River Delta under the human activities and its impact on the ecological environment in the past 30 years

The Luanhe River Delta is located in the center of the Circum-Bohai Sea Economic Zone. It enjoys rapid economic and social development while suffering relatively water scarcity. The overexploitation of groundwater in the Luanhe River Delta in recent years has caused the continuous drop of groundwater level and serious environmental and geological problems. This study systematically analyzes the evolution characteristics of the population, economy, and groundwater exploitation in the Luanhe River Delta and summarizes the change patterns of the groundwater flow regime in different aquifers in the Luanhe River Delta according to previous water resource assessment data as well as the latest groundwater survey results. Through comparison of major source/sink terms and groundwater resources, the study reveals the impacts of human activities on the groundwater resources and ecological environment in the study area over the past 30 years from 1990 to 2020. The results are as follows. The average annual drop rate of shallow groundwater and the deep groundwater in the centers of depression cones is 0.4 m and 1.64 m, respectively in the Luanhe River Delta in the past 30 years. The depression cones of shallow and deep groundwater in the study area cover an area of 545.32 km² and 548.79 km², respectively, accounting for more than 10% of the total area of the Luanhe River Delta. Overexploitation of groundwater has further aggravated land subsidence. As a result, two large-scale subsidence centers have formed, with a maximum subsidence rate of up to 120 mm/a. The drop of groundwater level has induced some ecological problems in the Luanhe River Delta area, such as the zero flow and water quality deterioration of rivers and continuous shrinkage of natural wetlands and water. Meanwhile, the proportion of natural wetland area to the total wetland area has been decreased from 99% to 8% and the water area from 1776 km² to 263 km². These results will provide data for groundwater overexploitation control, land subsidence prevention, and ecological restoration in plains and provide services for water resources management and national land space planning.© 2021 China Geology Editorial Office.     

人类活动影响下福建三都澳近百年来重金属沉积记录及其对生态环境的影响

因重金属难以被生物降解,易形成毒害环境因子,沉积物中的重金属污染演变是工业化以来全球共同面临的生态环境问题.为揭示福建三都澳地区人类活动与重金属沉积的关系,对采集自三都澳海域的6根岩心柱进行了系统的粒度分析、210Pb测年以及重金属元素测试.研究结果表明:(1)近百年来,三都澳海域沉积物重金属含量呈现显著增加趋势,顶部...     

Depositional environment of the Krol Group of the Nainital area and its impact on the stromatolites

Depositional environment of the Krol group varied temporally from subtidal in the Manora to intertidal in the Sleepy Hollow times. The conditions that succeeded were peritidal in the Ayarpatta and supratidal in the Narainnagar times. These conditions were the main controlling factors in the growth and development of the algal stromatolites. The Manora formation, due to subtidal conditions, and the Sleepy Hollow formation, due to detrital influx, are almost devoid of stromatolites. The carbonates of the Ayarpatta formation representing a peritidal complex possess columnar and oncolitic stromatolites, while the sediments of the Narainnagar formation characterized by supratidal features contain blistered, domal and crinkled-laminar forms. The types and sizes of stromatolites therefore are governed by the depositional conditions prevailing in the sedimentary basin.     

沙漠/黄土过渡带6 ka B.P.以来气候环境变化及其对人类活动的影响

文章选择沙漠/黄土过渡带的榆林市白河庙村钻孔（38°35'9.89″N,109°24'0.71″E）泥炭沉积,通过建立良好的年代序列和高分辨率花粉记录分析,重建研究区内植被演替和气候环境变化过程。在此基础上,结合考古学资料,探讨适宜的气候环境阶段和极端气候事件对人类活动的影响。结果表明,6 ka B.P.以来研究区植被类型经历典型草原、荒漠草原、干草原、荒漠草原4个阶段,指示6.0~4.2 ka B.P.气候较为暖湿,为全新世适宜期;4.2 ka B.P.时发生极端干旱事件,之后（4.2~1.1 ka B.P.）气候向干旱化发展;1.1~0.5 ka B.P.,气候经历短暂的湿润期;0.5 ka B.P.之后,气候再次转干。另外,通过统计沙漠/黄土过渡带6~3 ka B.P.考古遗址数量及其空间分布变化信息,发现史前人类活动与气候、生态系统变化紧密相关。东亚夏季风带来的降水量控制干旱/半干旱地区水资源变化,从而影响依赖水资源的旱作农业发展、人类活动强弱和考古学文化兴衰。6.0~4.2 ka B.P.降水较多,植被盖度高,毛乌素沙地固定,沙漠/黄土过渡带发育古土壤,并向西北移动。适宜的气候环境和良好的生态条件有利于旱作农业生产,导致人口增加,遗址点数量增多,人类活动范围扩大,仰韶时期和龙山时期的考古学文化繁荣发展。而4.2~3.0 ka B.P.遗址点大幅减少,人类活动规模减小,考古学文化衰退。4.2 ka B.P.极端干旱事件及之后持续的干旱,导致植被退化,毛乌素沙地沙丘活化,沙漠/黄土过渡带向东南方向摆动。水资源短缺和生态环境破坏,对以粟为主的旱作农业生产和人类生存造成严重影响,可能是导致该地区史前考古学文化大范围衰退的重要原因。