川滇地区岩石圈温度、化学组分结构研究及对岩石圈减薄过程的认识

川滇地区地处中国大陆西南,对其岩石圈结构的研究是认识该地区构造演化过程的基础.由于不同研究方法存在各自的局限性,导致其所获得的岩石圈结构和可能的构造演化过程仍存在争议.岩石圈温度、化学组分结构是深入认识这些争议性问题的基础.本文基于热动力学模拟和概率密度反演的方法,联合瑞雷面波相速度频散曲线、大地水准面高、地形和地表热流等观测资料,反演了川滇地区岩石圈的温度、化学组分结构.结果表明,川滇地区岩石圈呈现南薄北厚的趋势,其中印支块体岩石圈较薄,为60~80 km,相对起伏较小;川滇菱形块体、江南造山带西缘岩石圈自南（~80 km）向北（~200 km）递增;松潘甘孜块体保持较厚的岩石圈根（~240 km）.印支块体与江南造山带西缘岩石圈地幔以过渡型和难熔型的橄榄岩为主,仍存在部分古老难熔的岩石圈地幔物质;而川滇菱形块体内部为饱满型岩石圈地幔,表明古老、难熔的岩石圈地幔被新的地幔物质所取代.根据现今川滇地区岩石圈温度、化学组分结构,我们推测川滇地区南部的印支块体受印度板块与亚欧板块南北向碰撞的影响,导致该区域岩石圈增厚,并发生以拆沉作用为主的减薄过程,但岩石圈地幔仍以古老难熔的地幔物质为主;拆沉作用所导致的热地幔物质上涌使得川滇菱形块体古老难熔的岩石圈地幔物质由南往北逐渐为新的地幔物质所取代,形成了现今饱满型岩石圈地幔,热侵蚀作用在川滇菱形块体岩石圈减薄过程中占主导地位.

     

Station corrections for the Kaapvaal seismic network: Statistical properties and relation to lithospheric structure

Station corrections for body wave travel times are required to compensate for lateral variations in the crust and uppermost mantle in the analysis of seismic travel times that are used to determine deep Earth structure by various methods, including tomography. Station corrections to be applied to P wave arrival times from teleseismic earthquakes recorded by the Kaapvaal seismic network were estimated by five different methods: (1) averaging, (2) computing the median, and (3) weighted averaging of residuals; (4) least-squares regression, and (5) weighted least-squares regression. The corrections display variations that are related to the tectonic features of southern Africa inferred from surface geology, clearly delineating the southern and central areas of both the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons as regions of early arrivals, and the area around the Bushveld complex by later arrivals. Use of a simple ray method for generating synthetic station corrections suggests that lateral variations in the top 230 km of the Earth can explain the observed pattern of variations in station corrections. A satisfactory way of compensating for the biasing effects of outliers in the individual estimates of station corrections is through adaptation of a method originally developed by Jeffreys, which involves ascribing weights to the observations that reduce the standard deviation on a single estimate of a station correction from 0.123 to 0.096 s. Methods (2), (3) and (5) avoid serious bias by outliers, although methods (3) and (5) are preferred, because they also provide information on the causes of outliers. The presence of some outliers cannot be explained by errors in the measurement process, but must be caused by timing errors at the stations during recording, and/or errors introduced during the process of constructing the archived data files from the field data.     

Deep-focus earthquakes in the Mediterranean region

Summary In Table I the authors give a list of known deep-focus earthquakes in the eastern Mediterranean. Fig. 1 shows that their epicenters generally lie in the zones of active volcanoes, as in the regions surrounding the Pacific Ocean; however, their coincidence with positive gravity anomalies is less evident.

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Zusammenfassung In Tabelle I geben die Verff. eine Liste der ihnen bekannten Tiefenbeben im ?stlichen Mittelmeer. Fig. 1 zeigt, dass deren IIerde im Allgemeinen in den Zonen der t?tigen Vulkane liegen, ?hnlich wie in der Umgebung des Pazifischen Ozeans. Dagegen ist deren Zusammenfallen mit positiven Schwereanomalien weniger doutlich.

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Riassunto Gli AA. hanno raccolto nella Tab. 1 l'elenco dei terremoti profondi a loro noti del bacino mediterraneo orientale. La Fig. 1 mostra che in generale gli epicentri relativi sono distribuiti nelle zone dei vulcani attivi, analogamente a quanto accade ne'le regioni dell'Oceano Pacifico. Per contro, la connessione con le anomalie gravimetriche positive risulta meno evidente.

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Balch Graduate School of the Geological Sciences: Contribution No. 454.     

Travel time residuals in southeastern Europe

The Pn travel time relative residuals, in respect to a crustal model of the Aegean area, have been determined for 103 permanent seismological stations in southeastern Europe, western Turkey and the Middle East. The values of these residuals are considered to depend mainly on the crustal thickness beneath the seismological stations. Based on these values seven regions with different crustal thickness, varying between 31 Km and 42 Km, have been defined. The crust in these regions is continental. A region with very high negative residuals has been defined in the Middle East (Egypt, Israel, Lebanon). These negative residuals are attributed to different crustal structure of the eastern Mediterranean (oceanic crust with an extra thick sedimentary layer) and not the crustal thickness at the station sites.Independently from the interpretation, these Pn residuals can be used successfully to considerably improve (up to 2 Km) the determination of the earthquake foci locations.     

Interpretations of new features of time domain electric-field structures in the auroral acceleration region

Possible theoretical interpretations of the various nonlinear electric-field structures in the auroral acceleration region are provided.     

Diapiric structures in the eastern Mediterranean Herodotus basin

A 45-km square seismic reflection profiling grid survey was made in the part of the Herodotus basin where there is a large thickness of strongly deformed sediment, to determine the nature and cause of the deformation. The survey showed that the area has sediment ponded between highs in the underlying deformed sedimentary sequence, which becomes more deformed with increasing depth. The deepest continuous reflector that can be seen is probably reflector M. The seismic velocity above this is 3.2 km s^?1; a velocity could not be obtained from below this reflector. A map of depth to reflector M shows small rises superimposed on a strong linear north-south rise. There are no magnetic anomalies associated with any of these rises, so they are not caused by doming above igneous intrusions. The structures could be caused by syn-depositional folding, or sedimentary diapirism, of which sedimentary diapirism seems the most probable.     

Calibrating function and station corrections forPKP waves in the vicinity of a caustic

Summary The homogeneous Magnitude System (HMS), developed by Vank, Kondorskaya and Christoskov, is used to calculate station corrections, magnitudes and a calibrating function for short-period PKP waves in the distance interval of 143° to 148°. The data basis consists of a set of 26 Tuamotu underground explosions and their records at 14 Central European seismic stations. The station magnitudes, calculated in this way show a smaller dispersion than the uncorrected (usual) values.     

A review on the lithospheric structures in the Tibetan Plateau and constraints for dynamics

In the last decade, several international joint projects were conducted in the Tibetan Plateau by Chinese, American and French geophysicists and geologists. In the present review, the results from vertical reflections, wide-angle reflections and broadband digital seismic recordings are reviewed and compared. Constraints for the dynamics of continent-continent collision from the lithospheric structures, seismicity, focal mechanism and anisotropy are discussed.The velocities ofPn,Sn, , were accurately determined by using their travel times from local events. They evidenced that the uppermost mantle underneath the Tibetan Plateau was similar to that of the ordinary continental mantle.The reflection profile from INDEPTH-I furnishes convincing evidence that the Indian crust penetrates into the Tibetan lower crust. The results from teleseismic waveform inversion reveal that the Moho discontinuity dips northwards, and an offset of Moho occurs near Bangong suture.The fact that materials within the Tibetan Plateau escape laterally has been proposed by several authors. Recent data and studies provide further convincing evidence that eastward mass transfer does occur, and their paths and natures are investigated.Some authors suggested that the large strike slip faults (Kun Lun, Xianshuihe) in the eastern plateau may be related to the lateral extrusion. However, most of the strike slips are left-lateral, and extrusion could not occur without right-lateral strike slips. Recent observations of the focal mechanisms and geological structure indicate that the earthquakes in the Yanshiping-Changdu belt are left-lateral strike slip. It is the southeast zone of the left-lateral slip faults in the eastern Tibetan plateau. Geological and seismological evidence show that the Bencuo-Jiali belt is the only large right-lateral fault in the eastern plateau. It was proposed that the present eastward extrusion occurs between the Yangshiping-Changdu left-lateral strike slip and the Bencuo-Jiali right-lateral strike slip. The other left-lateral strike slips north of the Yangshiping-Changdu belt are considered to be the fossils of the ancient flow paths.     

Travel time to a well pumping an unconfined aquifer without recharge

A solution is given for the travel time to a well pumping an ideal, horizontal unconfined aquifer, under steady-state conditions, when recharge from infiltration is negligible. Three forms of the solution are provided: a closed-form solution, an integral to be calculated in a worksheet, and a simple equation. The three forms of the solution give travel times nearly identical to those obtained using a finite-element code for saturated and unsaturated flow and particle tracking.     

Hydrological characterization of dammed rivers in the NW Mediterranean region

Water scarcity and climatic variability in the Mediterranean region have traditionally required the construction of dams to guarantee water supply for irrigation, industrial and urban uses and hydropower production. Reservoirs affect the hydrology of the river downstream, but the magnitude and persistence of these effects are still poorly unknown. Understanding the magnitude of these effects is the objective of this paper, in which we analyse the flow regimes of twelve rivers located in the NW Mediterranean region. Different temporal scales (daily, monthly and annual) are used for the analysis and also to estimate flow variables associated with flow magnitude, frequency, duration and variability. It is shown that dams alter the hydrological regime of most of the studied rivers, with special influence on monthly flows and flood magnitude and frequency. The most altered rivers (Muga and Siurana, NE Iberian Peninsula) experience a complete overturn in their flow regime with, for instance, flood reduction reaching up to 76% for the 2‐year flood event. Other rivers showed lower changes in hydrology (e.g. Orb and Têt). Annual runoff showed a pattern of decrease in all the studied rivers (regulated and non‐regulated) indicating that besides dams (i.e. reservoir evaporation), other factors likely affect water yield. A general recovery downstream from dams is also observed at all temporal scales, mainly because of the inflow from tributaries. Although dams have a clear impact on the hydrology of Mediterranean rivers, water withdrawals and diversions for irrigation and other consumptive uses also affected the hydrological patterns. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

倾斜界面中反射波走时计算

对于平层界面和倾斜界面的反射地震波,基于射线理论,采用波动方程进行数值模拟;使用Matlab软件,编写2种界面不同倾角、不同震中距时反射地震波走时程序,绘制走时曲线,分析地震波的传播特点,为研究地震波在地球内部的传播路径提供参考。     

倾斜界面中反射波走时计算

对于平层界面和倾斜界面的反射地震波,基于射线理论,采用波动方程进行数值模拟;使用Matlab软件,编写2种界面不同倾角、不同震中距时反射地震波走时程序,绘制走时曲线,分析地震波的传播特点,为研究地震波在地球内部的传播路径提供参考。     

Water balance estimation under the challenge of data scarcity in a hyperarid to Mediterranean region

Water budget analyses are important for the evaluation of the water resources in semiarid and arid regions. The lack of observed data is the major obstacle for hydrological modelling in arid regions. The aim of this study is the analysis and calculation of the natural water resources of the Western Dead Sea subsurface catchment, one which is highly sensitive to rainfall resulting in highly variable temporal and spatial groundwater recharge. We focus on the subsurface catchment and subsequently apply the findings to a large‐scale groundwater flow model to estimate the groundwater discharge to the Dead Sea. We apply a semidistributed hydrological model (J2000g), originally developed for the Mediterranean, to the hyperarid region of the Western Dead Sea catchment, where runoff data and meteorological records are sparsely available. The challenge is to simulate the water budget, where the localized nature of extreme rainstorms together with sparse runoff data results in few observed runoff and recharge events. To overcome the scarcity of climate input data, we enhance the database with mean monthly rainfall data. The rainfall data of 2 satellites are shown to be unsuitable to fill the missing rainfall data due to underrepresentation of the steep hydrological gradient and temporal resolution. Hydrological models need to be calibrated against measured values; hence, the absence of adequate data can be problematic. Therefore, our calibration approach is based on a nested strategy of diverse observations. We calculate a direct surface runoff of the Western Dead Sea surface area (1,801 km²) of 3.4 mm/a and an average recharge (36.7 mm/a) for the 3,816 km² subsurface drainage basin of the Cretaceous aquifer system.     

Deep structure and lithospheric shear faults in the East Kunlun-Qiangtang region,northern Tibetan Plateau

An integrated study of earthquake seismic tomography in the Golmud-Tanggula Pass (west) and Gonghe-Yushu (east) with profiles traversing the East Kunlun-Qiangtang region of the northern Tibetan Plateau shows that the deep structure of the study region has the following characteristics: (1) from south to north the crustal thickness decreases from 70–75 km to 55–66 km, and the variation range of thickness (10 km) in the western part is smaller than that in the eastern part (20 km); (2) the crust has a sandwich-like structure and the middle crust has a lens-shaped low-velocity layer; (3) above 150 km in depth, the physical states of various terranes are marked by alternation of high-velocity and low-velocity bodies; and (4) the discontinuity of the lithospheric structure reveals the existence of three lithospheric shear faults on the the East Kunlun-Qiangtang region—the South Kunlun-A’nyêmaqên lithospheric shear fault, the Jinsha River lithospheric shear fault and the Xianshui River lithospheric shear fault. It is inferred that the easternward extrusion of northern Tibetan Plateau occurred in the lithospheric range.

     

Deep structure and lithospheric shear faults in the East Kunlun-Qiangtang region,northern Tibetan Plateau

The Cenozoic magmatic rocks of shoshonitic series in the eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau include potassic alkaline plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks, lamprophyres and acidic porphyries. Analytical results show that these different lithological rocks are extremely similar in Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic compositions with the range of 0.705 187– 0.707 254 for⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, 0.512 305–0.512 630 for¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd, 18.53–18.97 for²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, 15.51–15.72 for²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and 38.38–39.24 for²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb. They are isotopically similar to the EMII end-member. This indicates that mantle metasomatism must have taken place in their source region. The formation of these particular rocks is related to crustal thinning and mantle upwelling in a large-scale strike-slip and pull-apart fault zone at about 40 Ma in northern and eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau     

Numerical simulation of the observed strain field in the central-eastern Mediterranean region

The highly heterogeneous strain field indicated by neotectonic and seismological data in the central-eastern Mediterranean region has been reproduced, at a first approximation, by finite element modelling, of a 2D elastic thin plate. The zone considered is modelled as a mosaic of poorly deformable zones decoupled by highly deformable belts, simulating the major tectonic structures indicated by geological and geophysical evidence. The deformation of the model is obtained by imposing kinematic boundary conditions, representative of the motion of Africa and eastern Anatolia relative to Eurasia. Experiments carried out with different boundary conditions and model parameterisations have provided information on the sensitivity of the model and some insights into the geodynamic behavior of the study area. The deformation pattern of the central Mediterranean area is strongly conditioned by the mechanical properties assumed in the border zones between the Aegean and Adriatic systems. The match of the complex strain pattern observed in the western Anatolian–Aegean–Balkan zones is significantly favoured if high rigidity is assigned to the inner part of this structural system. A motion of Africa with respect to Eurasia compatible with an Eulerian pole located offshore Portugal best accounts for the observed strains in the central Mediterranean region. The match of the strongly heterogeneous strain field observed in the study area can hardly be achieved by simplified models not including major tectonic features and lateral heterogeneity of mechanical properties. The kinematic field resulting from the model configuration which best simulates the observed strain field presents some differences with respect to geodetic measurements in the Aegean–Western Anatolian area, where the computed velocities are systematically lower than the geodetic ones. It is suggested that the most plausible explanation of such differences is related to the fact that the present deformation pattern, inferred from geodetic data, may be different from the middle–long term one, inferred from seismological and geological data.     

当今中国岩石圈物理学研究中的几个重要问题与思考

我国多年来在岩石圈物理学研究中已取得了一系列的重要成果,并促进了我国地球科学的发展.然而在这21世纪之际,基于国家战略需求和自主创新的方针对岩石圏物理学是挑战,也是机遇.为此,必须厘定其今后的发展导向,并凝炼出前瞻性、并具有带动性的创新性核心科学问题.本文在这样的思维前提下对岩石圈物理学的科学内涵和发展导向进行了较全面的分析、研究和思考,并明确指出当今在这一学科领域应该做些什么,核心问题是什么,又存在哪些关键性的科学问题.研究结果提出,高精度的地球物理场观测与岩石圏内壳、幔精细结构(2维和3维)的刻划;在地球内部力系作用下,深部物质和能量的交换;深部物质运移的物理—力学—化学作用过程及深层动力学响应乃是深化对地球本体的认识和揭示成山、成盆、成岩、成矿和成灾的根本机理所在.为此,在本世纪的上、中叶,在地球科学领域中地球物理学研究必为先导!本文最后对岩石圈物理研究中尚存在的一些问题及困惑进行了分析和讨论,并提出了有关统一规划和观测仪器与设备的自主研发以及有序进行国际合作等方面的意见.     

Review of heat flow data from the eastern Mediterranean region

Heat flow data from the eastern Mediterranean region indicates an extensive area of low heat flow, spreading over the whole basin of the Mediterranean east of Crete (Levantine Sea), Cyprus, and northern Egypt. The average of the marine heat flow measurements in the Levantine Sea is 25.7±8.4 mW/m², and the heat flow on Cyprus is 28.0±8.0 mW/m². The estimated values of heat flow in northern Egypt range from 38.3±7.0 to 49.9±9.3 mW/m², apparently with no consistent trend. To the east, on the coast of Israel, the heat flow values increase, ranging from 36.6±22.4 to 56.7±14.2 mW/m² along a SSE trend. The trend apparently correlates with an increase in crustal thickness, which is about 23 km at the north-west base of the Nile-Delta-cone, and close to 40 km beneath Israel.Contribution No. 157, Department of Geology, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA.     

Travel time tomography inversion and the deep structure of the southern Tibet

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