Study on elastic response of structures to near-fault ground motions through record decomposition

Accelerograms recorded near active faults have some important characteristics that make them different from those recorded in far-fault regions. High-frequency components in acceleration records and long-period velocity pulses are among notable specifications of such ground motions. In this paper, a moving average filtering with appropriate cut-off frequency has been used to decompose the near-fault ground motions into two components having different frequency contents: first, Pulse-Type Record (PTR) that possesses long-period pulses; second, the relatively high-frequency BackGround Record (BGR), which does not include large velocity pulses. Comparing the results with those extracted through wavelet analysis shows that moving average filter is an appropriate and efficient tool for near-fault records decomposition. The method is applied to decompose a suite of 91 selected near-fault records and the elastic response of structures is examined through their response to the decomposed parts. The results emphasizes that in contrast with ordinary far-fault earthquake records, response spectra of near-fault ground motions typically have two distinct local peaks, which are representatives of the high- and low-frequency components, i.e., BGR and PTR, respectively. Moreover, a threshold period is identified below which the response of structures is dominated by BGR while PTR controls the response of structures with periods longer than this period.     

Validation of the Deep Velocity Structure of the Tokachi Basin Based on 3-D Simulation of Long-Period Ground Motions

The construction of 3-D basin velocity structures is ongoing in many regions of Japan. The structure models are constructed mainly for the prediction of long-period ground motions from future large earthquakes. In this paper, we validate the 3-D velocity structure model of the Tokachi basin, a deep sedimentary basin located in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, based on 3-D simulation of long-period (2–20 s) ground motions from three nearby intermediate-depth earthquakes; this model was constructed by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED). We make comparisons between the observed and synthetic long-period ground motions for the basin-induced surface waves as well as the direct S-wave. We also try to revise the 3-D velocity structure in the western part of the Tokachi basin based on 1-D velocity structures estimated using long-period S-wave modeling and the microtremor survey method. We then perform the 3-D simulation again to validate the revised model. Based on quantitative comparisons of the long-period ground motions from these simulations with those observed, we conclude that the NIED and revised velocity structure models are generally good at the central basin sites, but that both models require modification at the basin edges to explain the details of the observed basin-induced surface waves.     

Basin and crustal velocity structure models for the simulation of strong ground motions in the Kinki area,Japan

We constructed a prototype of the basin and crustal structure model for the Kinki area, southwest of Japan, for the simulation of strong ground motions of hypothetical crustal and subduction earthquakes. We collected results of the deep seismic velocity profiles obtained by the reflection experiments and seismic imaging results, which were conducted in the Kinki area. The obtained profiles give underground velocity structures of the crust, from the surface to the subducting slab. We also gather the basin velocity structure information of the Osaka, Kyoto, Nara, and Ohmi basins. To examine the applicability of the constructed velocity structure model to the ground motion simulation, we simulated waveforms of an intermediate size event occurred near the source area of the hypothetical subduction earthquakes. Simulated ground motions using the basin and crustal velocity structure model are fairly well reproducing the observations at most of stations, and the constructed basin and crustal velocity structure model is applicable for the long-period ground motion simulations.     

Prediction of ground motion in the Osaka sedimentary basin associated with the hypothetical Nankai earthquake

We studied the long-period ground motions in the Osaka sedimentary basin, Japan, which contains a 1- to 3-km thickness of sediments and is the site of many buildings or construction structures with long-natural period. We simulated the broadband ground motions likely to be produced by the hypothetical Nankai earthquake: the earthquake expected to give rise to the most severe long-period ground motion within the basin. For the simulation, we constructed multiscale heterogeneous source models based on the Central Disaster Management Council of Japan (CDMC) source model and adopted a hybrid computation method in which long-period motion and short-period motion are computed using a 3-D finite difference method and the stochastic Green’s function method, respectively. In computing long-period motions, we used a 3-D structure model of the crust and the Osaka sedimentary basin. The ground motions are estimated to have peak velocities of 50–90 cm/s, prolonged durations exceeding 300 s, and long predominant periods of 5–10 s in the area with great thickness of sediments. The predominant periods are in agreement with an approximate evaluation by 4 H/V _s where H and V _s are the thickness of the sediment and the average S wave velocity, respectively.     

基于希尔伯特-黄变换的近断层地震动脉冲特性研究

近断层地震动中存在的低频、大幅值速度脉冲使得临近断层结构具有更高的强度和延性需求。对近断层地震动脉冲特性的深入研究有利于加深对临近断层结构反应的认识,从而为临近断层结构抗震设计提供理论依据。受强震记录处理及速度脉冲识别和提取方法的限制,目前已有的研究工作主要集中于近断层地震动记录的单脉冲特性,多脉冲特性涉及较少。本文基于希尔伯特-黄变换及其相关理论,针对近断层地震动,提出了涵盖原始强震记录基线校正,至多速度脉冲定量判别及提取的整套脉冲特性研究方法,该方法对多脉冲记录尤为有效;基于提取出的理想化速度脉冲构建了（多）脉冲参数与地震参数的统计关系;以脉冲持时新定义了近断层地震动的有效强震持时,并通过多层结构非线性时程分析进行了验证。新方法中,基线校正过程可以获得稳定的地面峰值位移（PGD）和具有物理意义的基线偏移时程;提出的速度脉冲识别及波形提取方法可以将每个脉冲准确定位于时域,同时自动化获得脉冲相关参数;基于理想脉冲定义的近断层地震动有效强震持时可以良好地 表征多脉冲记录的强度。      

Identification of acceleration pulses in near-fault ground motion using the EMD method

In this paper, response spectral characteristics of one-, two-, and three-lobe sinusoidal acceleration pulses are investigated, and some of their basic properties are derived. Furthermore, the empirical mode decomposition （EMD） method is utilized as an adaptive filter to decompose the near-fault pulse-like ground motions, which were recorded during the September 20, 1999, Chi-Chi earthquake. These ground motions contain distinct velocity pulses, and were decomposed into high-frequency （HF） and low-frequency （LF） components, from which the corresponding HF acceleration pulse （if existing） and LF acceleration pulse could be easily identified and detected. Finally, the identified acceleration pulses are modeled by simplified sinusoidal approximations, whose dynamic behaviors are compared to those of the original acceleration pulses as well as to those of the original HF and LF acceleration components in the context of elastic response spectra. It was demonstrated that it is just the acceleration pulses contained in the near-fault pulse-like ground motion that fundamentally dominate the special impulsive dynamic behaviors of such motion in an engineering sense. The motion thus has a greater potential to cause severe damage than the far-field ground motions, i.e. they impose high base shear demands on engineering structures as well as placing very high deformation demands on long-period structures.     

日本熊本M_W 7.0地震的长周期地震动

利用日本K-NET和KiK-net强震动台网获取的距离发震断层100 km以内136个强震动台站的三分量加速度记录,研究熊本M_W7.0地震地震动的长周期特性.基于残差分析研究不同周期地震动的空间分布差异,将观测分析结果与美国NGA经验模型、汶川和芦山地震观测结果进行对比,揭示此次熊本地震近场强震动的长周期特点及其形成机理.研究结果表明:(1)虽然总体上此次地震的近场地震动水平与美国NGA-West2经验模型的预测结果接近,但周期2 s以上地震动的分布在断层不同方位有系统性差异,在断层的北东方位,周期2.0～10.0 s的反应谱高于NGA-West2经验模型的预测结果,在西南方位,谱值低于经验预测模型.(2)我们认为此次地震2.0～10.0 s的长周期地震动的空间分布差异主要受破裂方向性的影响,在破裂传播的正前方,周期T=2.0 s,3.0 s,5.0 s,7.5 s和10.0 s的加速度谱被放大到整体观测平均水平的1 4～2.0倍.从周期T=2.0 s到10.0 s,破裂向前方向的放大作用和破裂反方向的减弱作用均有所增强,此次地震观测到的速度大脉冲记录均位于断层的东北方位,这与方向性脉冲的产生机理相吻合,速度大脉冲对加速度反应谱有显著的长周期放大作用,放大倍数值可以超过4.0,放大作用的影响主要位于脉冲的特征周期T_p附近.(3)近断层记录在建筑结构敏感的周期(0.5～2.0 s)的反应谱达到芦山地震的3～6倍,虽然与芦山地震震级接近,此次地震近断层地震动破坏力大大超过了芦山M_W6.8地震,甚至超过了汶川W_W7.9地震,这种长周期特点应该引起工程抗震设计和相关研究人员的重视.     

The rocking response of large flexible structures to earthquakes

The rocking response of structures subjected to strong ground motions is a problem of ‘several scales’. While small structures are sensitive to acceleration pulses acting successively, large structures are more significantly affected by coherent low frequency components of ground motion. As a result, the rocking response of large structures is more stable and orderly, allowing effective isolation from the ground without imminent danger of overturning. This paper aims to characterize and predict the maximum rocking response of large and flexible structures to earthquakes using an idealized structural model. To achieve this, the maximum rocking demand caused by different earthquake records was evaluated using several ground motion intensity measures. Pulse-type records which typically have high peak ground velocity and lower frequency content caused large rocking amplitudes, whereas non-pulse type records caused random rocking motion confined to small rocking amplitudes. Coherent velocity pulses were therefore identified as the primary cause of significant rocking motion. Using a suite of pulse-type ground motions, it was observed that idealized wavelets fitted to velocity pulses can adequately describe the rocking response of large structures. Further, a parametric analysis demonstrates that pulse shape parameters affect the maximum rocking response significantly. Based on these two findings, a probabilistic analysis method is proposed for estimating the maximum rocking demand to pulse-type earthquakes. The dimensionless demand maps, produced using these methods, have predictive power in the near-field provided that pulse period and amplitude can be estimated a priori. Use of this method within a probabilistic seismic demand analysis framework is briefly discussed.     

Relative energy zero ratio-based approach for identifying pulse-like ground motions

Pulse-like ground motions are capable of inflicting significant damage to structures. Efficient classification of pulse-like ground motion is of great importance when performing the seismic assessment in near-fault regions. In this study, a new method for identifying the velocity pulses is proposed, based on different trends of two parameters: the short-time energy and the short-time zero crossing rate of a ground motion record. A new pulse indicator, the relative energy zero ratio(REZR), is defined to qualitatively identify pulse-like features. The threshold for pulse-like ground motions is derived and compared with two other identification methods through statistical analysis. The proposed procedure not only shows good accuracy and efficiency when identifying pulse-like ground motions but also exhibits good performance for classifying records with high-frequency noise and discontinuous pulses. The REZR method does not require a waveform formula to express and fit the potential velocity pulses; it is a purely signal-based classification method. Finally, the proposed procedure is used to evaluate the contribution of pulse-like motions to the total input energy of a seismic record, which dramatically increases the seismic damage potential.     

Lessons from the 2003 Tokachi-oki, Japan, earthquake for prediction of long-period strong ground motions and sloshing damage to oil storage tanks

The 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake (M _w 8.0) in northern Japan generated large-amplitude long-period (4–8 s) ground motions in the Yufutsu sedimentary basin, causing severe damage to seven large oil storage tanks with floating roof structures because of severe sloshing of oil. The 30,000–40,000-m³ tanks having suffered the severe damage such as fires and sinking of floating roofs experienced the sloshing with large amplitudes exceeding 3 m in which the fundamental mode was predominant. The second mode of sloshing was also excited in the 110,000-m³ tanks in which their floating roofs sank into oil, indicating that the higher modes of sloshing as well as the fundamental mode should be considered in damage prediction. The strong ground motion recordings demonstrated the earthquake dependency of predominant periods and the substantial spatial variation of the long-period shaking observed within the Yufutsu basin, meaning the necessity of source- and site-specific prediction of long-period strong ground motions. The two-dimensional numerical modeling suggested the importance of detailed structures of soft near-surface sediments as well as deep basin structure for accurate prediction of long-period strong ground motions in deep sedimentary basins.     

Study on equivalent velocity pulse of nearfault ground motions

Introduction By analyzing earthquake motions, we could find that earthquake motions near the causativefault have two characteristics. One is the remarkable directivity effect. The amplitude of thefault-normal component is larger than that of the fault-parallel one; the other is obvious pulse mo-tions. Bertero, et al (1977) studied the earthquake records of the 1971 San Fernando earthquake.They first pointed out that some ground motions recorded near the causative fault is characterizedb…     

近断层地震动等效速度脉冲研究

近断层地震动对地表结构物造成严重的破坏，它具有明显的方向性和脉冲型特征. 在速度时程中含有大幅值、长周期的脉冲波，对结构响应影响很大. 为简化计算和分析的需要，在既有的等效速度脉冲模型的基础上，建议了较为合理等效速度脉冲模型. 在充分收集脉冲型近断层地震记录的基础上，对等效速度脉冲模型的脉冲周期、脉冲强度及卓越脉冲数等参数进行了研究，并与以往研究者的结果进行比较，以利于近断层区结构的抗震设计.      

长短周期地震波作用下钢框架结构的响应特性对比分析

作为一种特殊的地震动,长周期地震动对结构的危害已引起国内外学者的关注。选取10条KiK-net、K-NET台网中典型的长周期地震动,以及10条国内外的短周期地震动,对比分析两者时程特征和反应谱特征的差异。将所选长、短周期地震动输入钢框架结构模型;通过非线性时程分析,研究钢框架结构在长、短周期地震动作用下的响应差异。结果表明：短周期地震动的平均地面峰值加速度是长周期地震动的3.26倍,而平均地面峰值位移比长周期地震动低10.89%;短周期地震动作用下,钢框架结构顶点加速度响应平均值是长周期地震动的5.16倍,结构顶点位移响应平均值仅比长周期地震动多0.91%;长周期地震动作用下,钢框架结构层间位移角响应较大,结构底部受影响范围更广。对于长周期地震动隐患地区的高层钢框架结构,应对长、短周期震害分别进行考虑;对于中、长周期钢框架结构,建议选用峰值位移作为抗震分析指标。     

Representation of near-fault pulse-type ground motions

Near-fault ground motions with long-period pulses have been identified as critical in the design of structures. To aid in the representation of this special type of motion, eight simple pulses that characterize the effects of either the fling-step or forward-directivity are considered. Relationships between pulse amplitudes and velocity pulse period for different pulses are discussed. Representative ratios and peak acceleration amplification can exhibit distinctive features depending on variations in pulse duration, amplitude and the selected acceleration pulse shape. Additionally, response spectral characteristics for the equivalent pulses are identified and compared in terms of fixed PGA and PGV, respectively. Response spectra are strongly affected by the duration of pulses and the shape of the basic pulses. Finally, dynamic time history response features of a damped SDOF system subjected to pulse excitations are examined. These special aspects of pulse waveforms and their response spectra should be taken into account in the estimation of ground motions for a project site close to a fault.     

Development of Long-period Ground Motions from the Nankai Trough, Japan, Earthquakes: Observations and Computer Simulation of the 1944 Tonankai (Mw 8.1) and the 2004 SE Off-Kii Peninsula (Mw 7.4) Earthquakes

Strong ground motions recorded in central Tokyo during the 1944 Tonankai Mw8.1 earthquake occurring in the Nankai Trough demonstrate significant developments of very large (>10 cm) and prolonged (>10 min) shaking of long-period (T > 10–12 s) ground motions in the basin of Tokyo located over 400 km from the epicenter. In order to understand the process by which such long-period ground motions developed in central Tokyo and to mitigate possible future disasters arising from large earthquakes in the Nankai Trough, we analyzed waveform data from a dense nation wide strong-motion network (K-NET and KiK-net) deployed across Japan for the recent SE Off-Kii Peninsula (Mw 7.4) earthquake of 5 September 2004 that occurred in the Nankai Trough. The observational data and a corresponding computer simulation for the earthquake clearly demonstrate that such long-period ground motion is primarily developed as the wave propagating along the Nankai Trough due to the amplification and directional guidance of long-period surface waves within a thick sedimentary layer overlaid upon the shallowly descending Philippine Sea Plate below the Japanese Island. Then the significant resonance of the seismic waves within the thick cover of sedimentary rocks of the Kanto Basin developed large and prolonged long-period motions in the center of Tokyo. The simulation results and observed seismograms are in good agreement in terms of the main features of the long-period ground motions. Accordingly, we consider that the simulation model is capable of predicting the long-period ground motions that are expected to occur during future Nankai Trough M 8 earthquakes.     

特殊长周期地震动的参数特征研究

近断层脉冲型地震动和远场软土层场地类谐和地震动是两类特殊的长周期地震动,当前的规范均很少对这两类地震作用进行具体的规定。研究了近断层脉冲型和远场类谐和地震动的幅值、幅值比（V／A,D／V）、傅里叶幅值谱和反应谱的差别,分析了相位角和作用循环周期数对简单脉冲的影响,并用于解释两类特殊地震动的工程特征。以集集地震动为数据基础,分析了两类长周期地震动的傅里叶谱和反应谱特征;将平均加速度和位移规准反应谱分别与规范设计谱进行了比较。建议设计谱在长周期段考虑近断层作用和软土场地面波效应的影响。     

Interstory drift ratio of building structures subjected to near-fault ground motions based on generalized drift spectral analysis

This paper focuses on the interstory drift ratio (IDR) demands of building structures subjected to near-fault ground motions having different impulsive characteristics based on generalized interstory drift spectral analysis. The near-fault ground motions considered include the idealized simple pulses and three groups of near-fault ground motions with forward directivity pulses, fling-step pulses and without velocity pulse. Meanwhile, the building systems are equivalently taken as shear-flexural beams with representative lateral stiffness ratios. The IDR distribution of continuous beams subjected to three groups of near-fault ground motions is acquired. It is illustrated that the maximum IDR shifts from the upper half to the lower half of buildings with an increase in lateral stiffness ratio. For long-period systems, the average IDR under impulsive ground motions is significantly greater than that under non-pulse motions. Finally, for moment-resisting frame buildings the forward directivity pulses amplify the drift response of higher modes, while the fling-step pulses excite primarily their contribution in the first mode and generate large deformation in the lower stories. The essential reason for this phenomenon is revealed according to the distinct property of near-fault impulsive ground motions and generalized drift spectral analysis.     

基于汶川地震远场强震动记录的厚覆盖土层对长周期地震动影响分析

利用2008年5月12日汶川8．0级地震的远场强震动记录,研究太原盆地厚覆盖土层对长周期地震动的影响,并将其结果与地震安全性评价工作中的土层反应分析结果进行比较。结果表明：厚覆盖土层对长周期地震动有很强的放大作用,覆盖层厚度越厚,峰值出现的周期越大,而相对于基岩最大放大可达9倍左右。另外,对于厚覆盖层的场地,观测结果与场地地震安全性评价计算结果在一定的长周期范围内差别相当大,相对于基岩,观测结果的放大系数至少高于场地地震安全性评价计算结果的2倍以上,最大达到近9倍。     

SH波入射下圆弧状沉积盆地地震反应瞬态解析解计算

地震波散射问题的解析解是研究局部场地、地形、盆地等不规则地层结构对地震动参数放大效应影响的重要理论工具.现有解析解大部分在频域内给出,无法直接用于研究不规则地层结构对地震动峰值、反应谱等参数的放大效应.本文基于平面SH波入射下圆弧状沉积盆地动力响应宽频带稳态解析解,通过Fourier变换,获取瞬态响应解析解.基于此,研...     

Validation of 3-D basin structure models for long-period ground motion simulation in the Osaka basin, western Japan

We studied the applicability of two types of existing three-dimensional (3-D) basin velocity structure models of the Osaka basin, western Japan for long-period ground motion simulations. We synthesized long-period (3–20 s) ground motions in the Osaka basin during a M6.5 earthquake that occurred near the hypothetical Tonankai earthquake source area, approximately 200 km from Osaka. The simulations were performed using a 3-D finite-difference method with nonuniform staggered grids using the two basin velocity structure models. To study the ground motion characteristics inside the basin, we evaluated the wave field inside the basin using the transfer functions derived from the synthetics at the basin and a reference rock site outside the basin. The synthetic waveforms at the basin site were obtained by a convolution of the calculated transfer function and the observed waveform at the reference rock site. First, we estimated the appropriate Q values for the sediment layers. Assuming that the Q value depends on the S wave velocity V _S and period T, it was set to Q = (1/3V _S)(T ₀/T) where V _S is in m/s and the reference period T ₀ is 3.0 s. Second, we compared the synthetics and the observations using waveforms and pseudovelocity response spectra, together with a comparison of the velocity structures of the two basin models. We also introduced a goodness-of-fit factor to the pseudovelocity response spectra as an objective index. The synthetics of both the models reproduced the observations reasonably well at most of the stations in the central part the basin. At some stations, however, especially where the bedrock depth varies sharply, there were noticeable discrepancies in the simulation results of the models, and the synthetics did not accurately reproduce the observation. Our results indicate that the superiority of one model over the other cannot be determined and that an improvement in the basin velocity structure models based on simulation studies is required, especially along the basin edges. We also conclude that our transfer function method can be used to examine the applicability of the basin velocity structure models for long-period ground motion simulations.