A new Cosserat-like constitutive model for bedded salt rocks

Salt rocks are commonly used as geologic host rocks for storage of gas and crude oil, and are being considered for the disposal of radioactive waste. Different from the salt rock domes in many countries, the salt rock formations in China are usually laminar with many alternating layers, i.e. rock salt, anhydrite, and/or mudstone. Considering the unique stratigraphic characteristics of these salt rocks, a new Cosserat-like medium constitutive model is proposed in order to facilitate efficient modeling of the mechanical behavior of these formations. In this model, a new representative volume element, containing two different layers, is employed to simulate the compatibility of the meso-displacement between two different layers and also the bending effect. A new method for the deformation and failure analysis of bedded salt rocks is derived therefrom. Having the macro-average stresses, the conventional stresses in the different layers can be obtained in sequence. The conventional stresses can then be utilized in a routine way for the strength and failure analysis. For the initial numerical modeling, the new Cosserat-like medium is reduced to a transversely isotropic one. The simplified constitutive model for layered media is then implemented into FLAC3D codes. A test sample validates that the results by using the numerical model are in good agreement with that by using the built-in model, and the mesh size for the new model is reduced greatly. Finally, an application for the stability of oil storage caverns in deep thinly bedded salt rocks is carried out. The effects on convergence of storage caverns and on the failure of surrounding rock due to the presence of the mudstone interlayers (hard phase) are discussed in detail. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

中国高放废物处置库选址中灵敏地质特征的初步确认

本文首先根据中国、瑞士和日本3国高放废物处置概念的相似性，建立中国第一处置库系统性能评价模型；然后通过对9个地质变量在8个事件中的灵敏度分析，初步确认出3个灵敏地质物征。此项研究对中国目前高放废物处置库选址工作有一定的指导意义。     

A petrologic, geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic study on contact metamorphism and degassing of Devonian evaporites in the Norilsk aureoles, Siberia

Devonian evaporites and associated sedimentary rocks in the Norilsk region were contact metamorphosed during emplacement of mafic sills that form part of the end-Permian (~252 Ma) Siberian Traps. We present mineralogical, geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic data on sedimentary rocks unaffected by metamorphism, and meta-sedimentary rocks from selected contact aureoles at Norilsk, to examine the mechanisms responsible for magma-evaporite interaction and its relation to the end-Permian environmental crisis. The sedimentary rocks include massive anhydrite, rock salt, dolostone, calcareous siltstones and shale, and the meta-sedimentary rocks comprise calcareous hornfels, siliceous hornfels and minor meta-anhydrite and meta-sandstone. Contact metamorphism took place at low pressure and at maximum temperatures corresponding to the phlogopite-diopside stability field. Calcareous hornfels have high CaO, MgO, CΟ₂, SΟ₃, low SiO₂ and initial Sr isotopic ratios of 0.7079–0.7092, features indicative of calcareous siltstone protoliths. Siliceous hornfels, in contrast, have high SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Na₂O, low in other major element oxides and initial Sr isotopic ratios of 0.7083–0.7152, consistent with pelitic or shaley protoliths. Loss of CO₂ in a subset of calcareous hornfels can be explained by decarbonation reactions during metamorphism, but release of SO₂ from evaporites cannot be accounted for by a similar mechanism. Occurrences of wollastonite and a variety of hydrous minerals in the calcareous hornfels are consistent with equilibration with hydrous fluid, which was capable of leaching large quantities of anhydrite in the presence of dissolved NaCl. In this way, substantial sediment-derived sulfur could have been mobilized, incorporated into the magmatic system and released to the atmosphere. The release of CO₂ and SO₂ from Siberian evaporites added to the variety of toxic gases generated during metamorphism of organic matter, coal and rock salt, contributing to the end-Permian environmental crisis.     

华北燕山期区域变质与内生成矿作用关系雏议

初步讨论了华北地区燕山期区域变质作用与内生成矿作用的关系。指出华北地区众多内生金属矿床产于绿片岩相岩石组合中，其中包括太古宙岩石的退变质、沉积盖层和中生代火山-侵入杂岩的进变质岩石。因此，这些矿床的形成与燕山期区域变质作用及其相应的韧性-韧脆性变形作用密切相关。     

核废物处置试验场环境地质研究综述

介绍了国外核废物处理试验场有关环境地质研究现状与进展。据核废物的放射性不同，目前或未来处置的方式不一样：中－低放射性废物（ＩＬＷ－ＬＬＷ）一般采用浅层处置，多置于粘土层或沉积岩层中；高放射性废物（ＨＬＷ）一般通过竖井或平巷处置于深部的花岗岩或岩盐中。根据母岩的类别不同，本文分花岗岩、岩盐、粘土及其它四部分，对不同的试验场的研究计划、内容、方法、进展等进行了评述。     

Geothermal evolution of the evaporite-bearing sequences of the Lesser Himalaya, India

Neoproterozoic evaporites occurring in the western part of the Lesser Himalaya in India, coeval to Pakistan, Iran and Oman evaporites, were investigated in order to understand the degree of metamorphism in them and in associated carbonates. The evaporite-bearing succession occurs in association of phyllite, quartzite and carbonate near the Main boundary Thrust. In order to learn the details about the burial history of these evaporite rocks, the Kübler illite crystallinity index (KI) was measured from the illite peaks of the clay minerals separated from the evaporite rocks and it indicated that this section has reached a maximum temperature up to ~300°C. Microthermometric measurements on fluid inclusions present in the associated dolomite show range of homogenization temperatures (Th), from 220 to 280°C, well within the temperature range of anchizone metamorphism. Additionally, dolomite shows a highly negative δ¹⁸O signature (mean, −15.5‰_PDB), which is more likely related to diagenetic overprint from deep burial conditions rather than original precipitation from ¹⁸O-depleted seawater. The evaporites (sulfates and chloride) probably were transformed many times after their precipitation, but they have retained only the features developed during last one or two phases of alteration and deformation as they are continuously susceptible to minor changes in temperatures and stresses. The final temperature range of 42–78°C in sulfates and chloride gives thermal approximation estimate that is not in concordance with the thermal history of the basin and are likely related to conversion of anhydrite into gypsum and recrystallization of halite during exhumation. Highly negative oxygen isotopic composition, homogenization temperatures and KI values equivalent to a high anchizone metamorphism suggest a burial depth of ~10 km for these terminal Neoproterozoic evaporite-bearing sequences of the Lesser Himalaya.     

基于BQ系统的阿拉善巴彦诺日公NRG01号钻孔岩体质量评价

高放废物深部地质处置目前受到世界各国的高度重视,处置库围岩岩体质量评价是高放废物处置库选址的关键问题之一。文章基于BQ系统对我国高放废物地质处置库阿拉善预选区巴彦诺日公NRG01号钻孔进行了岩体质量评价。NRG01号孔钻孔资料丰富,采用岩芯编录、波速测井、水压致裂地应力测量及岩石波速测试、单轴压缩试验等多种方法手段相结合的方式获取了BQ评价系统中的各个参数。评价过程中,综合考虑了岩体坚硬程度、完整程度及地下水、软弱结构面、初始地应力等因素对围岩稳定的影响。根据计算的[BQ]值对岩体质量进行评价并与RQD评价结果进行对比。评价结果表明,NRG01号孔岩体质量较好,Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级岩体占90%,410~500 m的岩体范围可作为处置库建设的目标岩体。[BQ]值与RQD值所得的岩体质量评价结果一致性良好,但由于BQ系统考虑的影响因素更为全面,评价结果更为精细。本次评价可为巴彦诺日公地段高放废物地质处置库场址比选及处置库目标岩体选择提供依据。     

An assessment of the creep behaviour of Brazilian salt rocks using the multi-mechanism deformation model

Salt rocks are geomaterials that exhibit several peculiarities, which require a particular approach in rock mechanics. In the field, those rocks are usually found in layered/bedded deposits and in domes or similar structures. Creep is one of the main deformation mechanisms associated with salt rocks, and this phenomenon is highly dependent on the stress state, temperature and mineralogy. Salt rock mechanics for engineering applications requires the definition of a powerful constitutive model and this is an ongoing challenge. Among the many available models, one of the most sophisticated physical constitutive models for salt rocks is the multi-mechanism deformation creep model (MD model). The main contribution of this work is to present a first effort in the use of the MD model for Brazilian salt rocks. Material-sensitive parameters have been calibrated for the Brazilian halite through two methodologies. Salt is modelled as an elasto-viscoplastic material. Numerical simulations using the finite element method have been carried out for triaxial creep tests, Pre-salt wellbore closure and mining gallery convergence in order to validate the parameter set and the methodologies. Excellent results have been observed in most of the applications for validation. Even so, validation efforts should continue to consolidate the parameters and identify possible limitations.     

Thermal impact of waste emplacement and surface cooling associated with geologic disposal of high-level nuclear waste

This article is a study of the thermal effects associated with the emplacement of aged radioactive high-level wastes in a geologic repository, with emphasis on the following subjects: waste characteristics, repository structure, and rock properties controlling the thermally induced effects; thermal, thermomechanical, and thermohydrologic impacts, determined mainly on the basis of previous studies that assume 10-yr-old wastes; thermal criteria used to determine the repository waste loading densities; and technical advantages and disadvantages of surface cooling of the wastes prior to disposal as a means of mitigating the thermal impacts. Waste loading densities determined by repository designs for 10-yr-old wastes are extended to older wastes using the near-field thermomechanical criteria based on room stability considerations. Also discussed are the effects of long surface cooling periods determined on the basis of far-field thermomechanical and thermohydrologic considerations. Extension of the surface cooling period from 10 yr to longer periods can lower the near-field thermal impact but have only modest long-term effects for spent fuel. More significant long-term effects can be achieved by surface cooling of reprocessed high-level waste.     

Modelling groundwater contamination above a nuclear waste repository at Gorleben, Germany

The candidate repository for high-level nuclear waste in the Gorleben salt dome, Germany, is expected to host 8,550 tonnes of uranium in burnt fuel. It has been proposed that 5,440 waste containers be deposited at a depth of about 800?m. There is 260?C280?m of siliciclastic cover sediments above the proposed repository. The potential groundwater contamination in the siliciclastic aquifer is simulated with the TOUGHREACT and TOUGH2-MP codes for a three-dimensional model with 290,435 elements. Two deterministic cases are simulated. The single-phase case considers the transport of radionuclides in the liquid phase only. The two-phase case accounts for hydrogen gas generated by the corrosion of waste containers and release of gaseous C-14. The gas release via a backfilled shaft is assumed to be steady (non-explosive). The simulation period is 2,000,000 years for the single-phase case and 7,000 years for the two-phase case. Only the radioactive dose in the two-phase case is higher than the regulatory limit (0.1?mSv/a).     

前陆盆地钾盐矿床成因及模式——以西班牙北部埃布罗盆地为例

前陆盆地蕴藏有巨量的钾盐资源,而对于其内的钾盐矿床成因和模式还欠缺系统的总结。西班牙埃布罗盆地是由于伊比利亚和欧亚块体碰撞而形成的前陆盆地。始新世晚期(约36 Ma)海水完全从盆地退出后,在极端干旱气候作用下,由于碰撞造山导致盆地的封闭作用,在南比利牛斯前陆盆地系统的前渊带(即埃布罗盆地北部)形成了典型的厚层含钾石盐_光卤石的正常海相蒸发岩序列。后期受到构造挤压作用,钾盐地层以盐底劈的形式出露在背斜核部。埃布罗盆地钾盐成因是构造、气候和物源三者耦合作用的结果,与中国库车前陆盆地有很大的相似性。据此,作者建议可重点关注盆地南北盐丘地带苏维依组蒸发岩以及卤水的迁移方向。     

黏土岩水力耦合特性试验研究

对于高放废物地质处置工程,地质屏障系统是放射性有害物质进入环境的最后一道屏障,也是一条重要防线。黏土岩由于其低渗透性、渗透损伤自修复以及较强的吸附能力等特性,被认为是一种合理的高放废物处置地质屏障。结合比利时正开展的黏土岩高放废物地质处置相关研究课题,通过一系列室内试验研究黏土岩的水力耦合机制及长期蠕变特性。三轴压缩试验表明,黏土岩压缩强度、超孔隙水压力与围压正相关。渗透试验表明,黏土岩渗透性呈现显著的各向异性特征,围压增大使黏土岩渗透性显著降低。蠕变试验表明,黏土岩蠕变变形、蠕变变形速率与载荷密切相关,即：载荷越大,黏土岩蠕变变形越显著,蠕变变形速率达到稳定所需的时间越长,且相应的稳态蠕变速率越大;根据应力阈值和等时曲线法初步确定该黏土岩长期强度在1.0～1.2 MPa。研究结果将为我国未来黏土岩高放废物处置库的选址和安全性评估提供重要科学依据。     

Salt Crystallization Sequences of Nonmarine Brine and Their Application for the Formation of Potassium Deposits

The salt assemblages precipitated during evaporation of concentrated brine collected from Gasikule Salt Lake (GSL) were studied to better understand the formation of potassium deposits in the Qaidam Basin. The study included isothermal evaporation at 25 °C in the laboratory and solar evaporation in the ponds at GSL field. Brines increased in density and became moderately acidic (pH?≈?5.30) while major ion geochemistry and precipitate mineralogy all showed broad agreement between both systems. Four salt assemblages were identified in the isothermal evaporation experiment: halite?→?halite?+?hexahydrite?→?halite?+?bischofite?+?carnallite?→?bischofite. Alternately, three salt assemblages were recognized in the solar evaporation: halite?→?halite?+?epsomite?+?carnallite?→?halite?+?carnallite?+?bischofite. The key difference in salt assemblages between the two systems is attributed to differences in relative humidity and temperature conditions. Although the GSL has deep spring inflow recharge, the high abundance of MgSO₄ salts demonstrates that the salt assemblages are similar to normal seawater evaporation. Thus, different proportions of deep spring inflow and river water could form both MgSO₄-deficient potassium evaporite and normal seawater potassium evaporites. Therefore, nonmarine water may form diverse potassium evaporite deposits in continental basins when the geological structure as well as hydrogeological and climatic conditions is appropriate.     

辽东硼矿的成矿机制及成矿模式

为了解辽东硼矿的成矿机制及建立成矿模式, 分析了含硼岩系、镁质容矿岩石、区域变质作用及混合岩化作用、构造等四大控矿因素, 发现含硼岩系具富硼特征, 容矿岩石具富镁特点并可成为硼质的沉淀剂, 含硼岩系中硼在区域变质和混合岩化过程中得到进一步活化形成含硼热液, 含硼热液在有利的构造空间交代镁质岩石即可形成镁硼酸盐型硼矿.含硼岩系、镁质容矿岩石是硼矿形成的物质基础, 区域变质及混合岩化作用、构造活动是硼矿形成的必要条件.辽东硼矿成矿模式为原始火山-沉积初始富集和部分熔融含硼热液交代镁质岩石.      

The use of two-part Hooke’s model (TPHM) to model the mine-by test at Mont Terri Site,Switzerland

The full-scale mine-by (MB) test conducted in 2008 in the Mont Terri underground rock laboratory (Switzerland) investigated the deformation and the coupled hydro-mechanical behavior of the Opalinus Clay in response to tunnel excavations. The Opalinus Clay is currently under investigation in Switzerland as a potential host rock for geologic disposal of high-level radioactive waste. To further improve the understanding and modeling of the coupled processes and their impact on the performance of a geologic repository in Opalinus Clay, a newly developed two-part Hooke’s model (TPHM) was implemented into a geomechanical simulator. A three-dimensional simulation model based on the TPHM was then developed to predict the deformation and pore pressure responses in the near field of the MB Niche 2 test at the Mont Terri Site. The usefulness and validity of the TPHM are demonstrated by the consistency between simulation results and field observations. Simulation results show that the pore pressure disturbance becomes visible at about 11 m ahead of the mine-by excavation advancing face (along the longitudinal direction of the MB Niche). The results also demonstrate that there exists a good correlation between the excavation damage zone (EDZ) and the pore-pressure evolution, which may have important practical implications for monitoring EDZ evolution with pore-pressure sensors. The simulation results, which are sensitive to the constitutive relationships used in the model, capture both the observed displacements and the size of the damage zone, whereas the approach based on the conventional Hooke’s law underestimates both. The comparison between simulated and observed results also indicates that laboratory-measured mechanical properties can be used to accurately predict field-scale mechanical deformations, as long as valid constitutive relationships are employed.     

2000-2040年我国高放废物深部地质处置初探

本简要介绍了国内外高放废物地质处置研究概况，探讨了我国高放废物地质处置研究阶段的划分，各阶段的研究目标，任务和研究内容以及各研究阶段的大致时间安排，提出了我国高放废物地质处置研究在2000－2040年的远景规划设想。     

Effects of carnallite content on mechanical properties of Maha Sarakham rock salt

Mechanical characterization tests are performed to determine the effects of carnallite contents on the strength, elasticity, and time-dependent parameters of rock salt specimens obtained from the Lower Member of the Maha Sarakham formation. The specimens are prepared with carnallite content (C _%) varying from 0% (pure halite) to 100% (pure carnallite). The compressive and tensile strengths and elastic moduli of the specimens exponentially decrease with increasing C _%. Specimens with higher C _% tend to dilate more than those with lower C _%, as evidenced by the increasing of the Poisson’s ratio. The strength reduction due to the carnallite content decreases as the confining pressures increase. The elastic, visco-elastic, and visco-plastic parameters of the creep test specimens are defined as a function of C _%. They rapidly decrease with increasing C _%. Pure halite tends to behave as the Burgers material while pure carnallite behaves as the Maxwell material. The different creep rates and deformation mechanisms between halite and carnallite explain the occurrences and structures of potash ore deposit at the shelves and flanks of the salt domes and anticlines in the salt basin.     

内蒙古巴音戈壁盆地因格井坳陷下白垩统湖相热水沉积岩特征及成因*

内蒙古巴音戈壁盆地因格井坳陷下白垩统巴音戈壁组上段是中国高放废物黏土岩处置库重点预选区段。通过对该段沉积岩开展岩石学、矿物学和地球化学等研究,发现该热水沉积岩岩相呈深灰色、灰色,具有纹层/条带状、网脉状、同生变形、“斑状”、块状共5种典型构造,主要矿物组分为白云石、铁白云石、方沸石、伊利石、钠长石和黄铁矿。依据主要矿物组分,将热水沉积岩分为混积岩、泥质白云岩、泥质沸石岩及含白云石沸石泥岩4类。地球化学测试结果表明: 热水沉积岩中主量元素铁、锰富集;深源气液型微量元素Mo、Sb、Zn、As、Sr、Ba丰度相对较高;稀土元素总量变化范围大,平均值为119.85μg/g,轻稀土明显富集,重稀土亏损,δCe未见明显亏损(平均值0.99),δEu中等偏强的负异常(平均值0.62);δ¹⁸O值以负偏为主。根据氧同位素值计算出的热水沉积物形成温度介于40.41~64.87℃之间,Fe-Mn-(Cu+Co+Ni)三角图解中热水沉积物均落入喷流沉积区。结合区域构造背景,认为该套热水沉积岩是在干旱的气候条件下,偏还原的半咸湖—咸湖湖水与深部岩浆热液相互作用形成的低温“白烟型”热水沉积岩,其中阿尔金断裂带在100—120Ma的活动是热水沉积岩形成的主控因素,其为白云化流体提供了运移通道。对巴音戈壁盆地下白垩统巴音戈壁组热水沉积岩的研究,有助于确定高放废物黏土岩地质处置库重点目标层位。     

非洲下刚果盆地钾盐矿床特征、沉积旋回与沉积模式

下刚果盆地位于西非大陆边缘,形成于南美大陆与非洲大陆裂开初期,大西洋打开之时,在早白垩世形成了巨型钾盐矿床。文章在盆地内布谷马西矿区钻孔的岩芯编录的基础上,结合岩相学、地球化学和沉积韵律等研究,探究钾盐矿床沉积特征和盆地内蒸发岩沉积旋回,并总结了矿床沉积模式。下刚果盆地总体较平缓,西南低,北东高,自盆地边缘向中部,沉积厚度逐渐增大,钾盐矿床赋存于下白垩统Aptian阶蒸发岩系中。蒸发岩系主要由石盐岩与光卤石岩互层构成,局部夹(含水氯镁石)溢晶石岩、石膏岩和黑色碳质页岩夹层。矿床由多层水平_近水平层状矿体组成,单层矿体厚度几米至几十米,矿层比较稳定,延续范围广,主要矿层——光卤石层累计厚度超过100 m。主要矿石类型为光卤石型,仅局部为钾石盐型。矿石品位高,KCl平均品位为16.49%。成盐盆地在早白垩世只有一个成盐期,含盐系即为Ⅰ级韵律;根据沉积特征,又可划分为8个Ⅱ级盐韵律和若干个Ⅲ级盐韵律。整个成盐期总体沉积环境较稳定,未出现蒸发岩序列中断,但受地面的沉降变化和海水周期性灌入的影响,出现了石盐与光卤石的韵律互层沉积。下刚果盆地内蒸发岩沉积序列与正常的海相蒸发岩不同,底部缺乏碳酸盐和硫酸盐地层,指示其成钾物质来源于经过一定程度蒸发浓缩的古海水。在上述研究的基础上,结合成盐期盆地岩相古地理与构造条件,总结出下刚果盆地裂谷型钾盐矿床沉积模式。     

40Ar/39Ar geochronology constraints on the Middle Tertiary basement extensional exhumation,and its relation to ore-forming and magmatic processes in the Eastern Rhodope (Bulgaria)

The interaction of distinct geologic processes involved during late orogenic extensional exhumation history of the metamorphic units in the Eastern Rhodope is refined by new and reviewing ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronological and structural data. Minerals with different closure temperatures from metamorphic rocks investigated in this study are combined with those from magmatic and ore-forming hydrothermal rocks in two late stage metamorphic domes – the Kesebir-Kardamos and the Biala reka-Kehros domes. The 38-37 Ma muscovite and biotite cooling ages below 350°-300°C characterize basement metamorphic rocks that typified core of the Kesebir-Kardamos dome, constraining their exhumation at shallow crustal levels in the footwall of detachment. These ages are interpreted as reflecting last stage of ductile activity on shear zone below detachment, which continued to operate under low-temperature conditions within the semi-ductile to brittle field. They are close to and overlap with existing cooling ages in southern Bulgaria and northern Greece, indicating supportively that the basement rocks regionally cooled between 42-36 Ma below temperatures 350°-300°C. The spatial distribution of ages shows a southward gradual increase up structural section, suggesting an asymmetrical mode of extension, cooling and exhumation from south to the north at latitude of the Kesebir-Kardamos dome. The slightly younger 36.5-35 Ma crystallization ages of adularia in altered rocks from the ore deposits in the immediate hanging-wall of detachments are attributed to brittle deformation on high-angle normal faults, which further contributed to upper crustal extension, and thus constraining the time when alteration took place and deformation continued at brittle crustal levels. Silicic dykes yielded ages between 32-33 Ma, typically coinciding with the main phase of Palaeogene magmatic activity, which started in Eastern Rhodope region in Late Eocene (Priabonian) times. The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar plateau ages from the above distinct rock types span time interval lasting approximately ca. 6 Ma. Consequently, our geochronologic results consistently indicate that extensional tectonics and related exhumation and doming, epithermal mineralizations and volcanic activity are closely spaced in time. These new ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age results further contribute to temporal constraints on the timing of tectonic, relative to ore-forming and magmatic events, suggesting in addition that all above mentioned processes interfered during the late orogenic extensional collapse in the Eastern Rhodope region.