Deterministic seismic microzonation of Kolkata city

This paper presents the deterministic seismic microzonation of densely populated Kolkata city situated on the world’s largest delta island with very soft and thick soil deposit in the surficial layers. A fourth-order accurate staggered-grid finite-difference algorithm for SH-wave propagation simulation in visco-elastic medium is used for the linear computation of ground motion amplifications in sedimentary deposit. Different maps such as for fundamental frequency (F ₀), peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity, and peak ground displacement are developed for variety of end-users communities, including structural and geotechnical engineers for performance-based designs, building officials, emergency managers, land-use planners, private businesses, and the general public. The scenario of simulated amplification factors in the different frequency bands revealed that the Kolkata city is very much prone to severe damage even during a moderate earthquake and very selective damage may occur at some of the localities during local and distant earthquakes. The deterministically predicted PGA at bedrock level is 0.0844 g and the maximum PGA predicted at the free surface is 0.6 g in Kolkata city due to maximum credible earthquake (M _w = 5.4) associated with Eocene Hinge Zone at a depth of 36 km. The seismic microzonation of Kolkata city reveals that the Nager Bazar and Nimtala areas are the safest regions with earthquake point of view.     

A technical note on seismic microzonation in the central United States

Microzonation is an effort to evaluate and map potential hazards found in an area, urban area in particular, that could be induced by strong ground shaking during an earthquake. These hazards include: ground motion amplification, liquefaction, and slope failure. The microzonation maps, depicting ground-motion amplification, liquefaction, and landslide potentials, can be produced if the ground motion on bedrock (input) and the site conditions are known. These maps, in combination with ground-motion hazard maps (on bedrock), can be used to develop a variety of hazard mitigation strategies such as seismic risk assessment, emergency response and preparedness, and land-use planning. However, these maps have certain limitations that result from the nature of regional mapping, data limitations, generalization, and computer modeling. These microzonations show that when strong ground shaking occurs, damage is more likely to occur, or be more severe, in the higher hazard areas. The zones shown on the hazard maps should not serve as a substitute for site-specific evaluations.     

An overview on the seismic zonation and microzonation studies in India

The present study presents a review on the progressive development of the seismic zonation map of India both from official agencies and also from independent individual studies. The zonation map have been modified and updated regularly with the occurrence of major destructive earthquakes over the years in the Indian subcontinent with the addition of new data. This study discusses the criteria chosen for the progressive zonation and the major earthquakes that were responsible for retrospection of the earlier published maps. The seismic zonation maps of India have also been prepared by various independent workers by adopting different approaches to achieve the purpose of the zonation. Despite the endeavors from various sources to provide a solution for the problem of earthquake hazards in India, there were many limitations on the zonation map as it gives the picture at a regional scale mostly on the bedrock level without addressing the local site conditions. But nevertheless, the seismic zonation map gives basic guidelines for any region to know the hazard scenario and if any city or urban population is under threat from seismic point of view, further site specific seismic microzonation may be carried out. In the International scenario, the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP) in 1999 prepared a hazard map for world in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA) with a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years, but it turned out to be an underestimation of the hazard parameter when compared with the observed PGA. To tackle the problem of seismic hazards, there was a need to have a detail study on the local site conditions in terms of its geological, geophysical and geotechnical properties. With the advent of better instrumentation and knowledge on the mechanics of earthquakes, it was possible to identify zones of hazards at a local level and this gives rise to the study of seismic microzonation. Seismic microzonation work has been carried out in India in some of the strategic important mega cities and industrial build up that has the potential of being damaged from future earthquakes, as has been shown in the past. Though the microzonation map is not the final output map, as it can still be updated at later stage with more input data, it does provide a more realistic picture on the site specific seismic hazard.     

Importance of quantification of local site effects based on wave propagation in seismic microzonation

This paper presents the three most important aspects of seismic microzonation namely prediction of fundamental frequency (F ₀) of soil deposit, aggravation factor (aggravation factor is simply the extra spectral amplification due to complex 2D site effects over the 1D response of the soil column) and the spatial variability of the ground motion caused by the basin-edge induced Love waves. The predicted F ₀ of single, double and three-soil-layered models revealed that the available empirical relations to predict the F ₀ of layered soil deposits are inadequate. We recommend the use of analytical or numerical methods to predict such an important parameter based on wave propagation effects. An increase of amplitude of Love wave, strain level and average aggravation factor (AAF) with increase of impedance contrast was obtained. Based on the trend of rate of decrease of AAF and maximum strain with offset from the basin-edge, we can qualitatively infer that the effects of induced Love wave may reduce to a negligible value after a traveled distance of 6.5–10.0 λ _F (where λ _F is the wavelength corresponding to the F ₀ of soil layer). The obtained increase of strain level with the decrease of distance between two receiver points used for the computation of strain reflects that structures having spatial extent smaller than the λ _F may suffer damage due to the basin-edge induced surface waves. The fast rate of decrease of strain with the offset from the strong lateral discontinuity (SLD)/basin-edge may be attributed to the dispersive nature of Love wave. We can incorporate the increased spectral amplification due to the induced surface waves in the form of aggravation factor but till date we have no effective way to incorporate the effects of developed strain by induced surface waves in seismic microzonation or in building codes.     

Lessons learned from two case histories of seismic microzonation in Italy

The prediction of the variability of the seismic ground motion in a given built-up area is considered an effective tool to plan appropriate urban development, to undertake actions on seismic risk mitigation and to understand the damage pattern caused by a strong-motion event. The procedures for studying the seismic response and the seismic microzonation of an urban area are well established; nevertheless, some controversial points still exists and are discussed here. In this paper, the selection of a reference input motion, the construction of a subsoil model and the seismic response analysis procedures are discussed in detail, based on the authors’ experience in two Italian case histories: the seismic microzonation of the city of Benevento, which was a predictive study, and the simulation of seismic response and damage distribution in the village of San Giuliano di Puglia, which was a retrospective analysis.     

Seismic microzonation in Australia

Since the 1980s seismic microzonation studies have been undertaken in Australia to assess the likely effects of earthquakes on urban centres built on unconsolidated sediments. Presently the Nakamura method is used for processing data.So far parts of Perth, Adelaide, Cairns, Gladstone, Rockhampton, Newcastle, Sydney and Launceston have been zoned. The Launceston, Tasmania, study was the pilot study for many of these as it refined the methodology used and the data obtained were incorporated into a GIS database. Building heights and site factor zoning maps were produced for the Launceston City Council.One of the major activities, of the new initiative by the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO), popularly known as the ‘Cities Project’, is coordinating seismic microzonation throughout Australia. Microzonation data have been included in AGSO’s geohazards GIS database. This is helping local councils zone land for seismic hazards. State Emergency Services use the information to plan for emergencies resulting from the effects of earthquakes. These practical applications of seismic microzonation data will help mitigate the destructive effects of any future large earthquakes occurring near major urban centres.In the Launceston case it was found that there is a variable risk dependant on epicentral distance and the nature of relatively unconsolidated sediments in various parts of the city. Disastrous amplification could occur at some sites.     

Dynamic analysis of ground with rigorous use of strain dependency and its application to seismic microzonation of alluvial plane

Seismic microzonation is one of the most important measures to mitigate earthquake hazards in urban areas. Because the ground motion varies significantly with the subsurface geology, it is needed for microzonation to account as much as possible for the local soil conditions. Noteworthy is that nonlinear deformation properties of soil play essential roles in amplification of strong ground motion. It is desired furthermore to focus on the expected damage extent in addition to the calculated maximum acceleration and/or velocity. The present study first developed a computer code for one-dimensional response analysis of ground that reasonably takes into account nonlinear dynamic soil properties. Second, correlations between the calculated ground motion and damage extent were obtained by examining seismic damages during the past earthquakes. By combining these two issues, seismic microzonation was carried out, and detailed damage distribution was assessed. The product of this study covers not only the damage caused by ground shaking but also liquefaction problem and lifeline damage.     

极震区岩体地震动力破坏若干问题探讨

汶川地震时极震区产生了严重的地震地质灾害,其中强烈地震动造成的岩体动力破坏是造成灾害的根本原因。从极震区含义、地震动特征、岩体地震动力破坏概念、地震松动岩体和方法论等方面初步探讨了极震区岩体地震动力破坏问题。极震区是未来地震的潜在震源区,区内的地震属于直下型。极震区地震动具有不同于非极震区的地震动特征,岩体地震动力破坏的复合性特点就是地震动的不确定性造成的。对极震区岩体动力破坏概念的理解应考虑地震动的特点。地震松动岩体是极震区地震动造成的一种特殊破坏类型,是形成震害次生灾害的重要原因。岩体工程地质力学等学科的思想方法和技术手段为研究极震区岩体地震动力破坏这一命题提供了良好的基础,预测和评价极震区因岩体动力破坏造成的工程震害和地质灾害,减轻和预防未来地震时的灾害损失,是极震区岩体地震动力破坏研究的目标和方向。     

Relative seismic shaking vulnerability microzonation using an adaptation of the Nakamura horizontal to vertical spectral ratio method

An alternative seismic shaking vulnerability survey method to computational intensive theoretical modelling of site response to earthquake, and time consuming test versus reference site horizontal ratio methods, is described. The methodology is suitable for small to large scale engineering investigations. Relative seismic shaking vulnerability microzonation using an adaptation of the Nakamura horizontal to vertical spectral ratio method provides many advantages over alternative methods including: low cost; rapid field phase (100 km² can easily be covered by a single operator in 5 days); low and flexible instrumentation requirements (a single seismometer and data logger of almost any type is required); field data can be collected at any time during the day or night (the results are insensitive to ambient social noise); no basement rock reference site is required (thus eliminating trigger synchronisation between reference and multiple test site seismographs); rapid software aided analysis; insensitivity to ground-shaking resonance peaks; ability to compare results obtained from non-contiguous survey fields. The methodology is described in detail, and a practical case study is provided, including mapped results. The resulting microzonation maps indicate the relative seismic shaking vulnerability for built structures of different height categories within adjacent zones, with a resolution of approximately 1 km.     

Neotectonics of the Somogy hills (Part II): Evidence from seismic sections

The Somogy hills are located in the Pannonian Basin, south of Lake Balaton, Hungary, above several important tectonic zones. Analysis of industrial seismic lines shows that the pre-Late Miocene substratum is deformed by several thrust faults and a transpressive flower structure. Basement is composed of slices of various Palaeo-Mesozoic rocks, overlain by sometimes preserved Paleogene, thick Early Miocene deposits. Middle Miocene, partly overlying a post-thrusting unconformity, partly affected by the thrusts, is also present. Late Miocene thick basin-fill forms onlapping strata above a gentle paleo-topography, and it is also folded into broad anticlines and synclines. These folds are thought to be born of blind fault reactivation of older thrusts. Topography follows the reactivated fold pattern, especially in the central-western part of the study area.

The map pattern of basement structures shows an eastern area, where NE–SW striking thrusts, folds and steep normal faults dominate, and a western one, where E–W striking thrusts and folds dominate. Folds in Late Neogene are also parallel to these directions. A NE–SW striking linear normal fault and associated N–S faults cut the highest reflectors. The NE–SW fault is probably a left-lateral master fault acting during–after Late Miocene. Gravity anomaly and Pleistocene surface uplift maps show a very good correlation to the mapped structures. All these observations suggest that the main Early Miocene shortening was renewed during the Middle and Late Miocene, and may still persist.

Two types of deformational pattern may explain the structural and topographic features. A NW–SE shortening creates right-lateral slip along E–W faults, and overthrusts on NE–SW striking ones. Another, NNE–SSW shortening creates thrusting and uplift along E–W striking faults and transtensive left-lateral slip along NE–SW striking ones. Traces of both deformation patterns can be found in Quaternary exposures and they seem to be consistent with the present day stress orientations of the Pannonian Basin, too. The alternation of stress fields and multiple reactivation of the older fault sets is thought to be caused by the northwards translation and counter-clockwise rotation of Adria and the continental extrusion generated by this convergence.     

Proposed seismic hazard maps of Sumatra and Java islands and microzonation study of Jakarta city,Indonesia

This paper presents the development of spectral hazard maps for Sumatra and Java islands, Indonesia and microzonation study for Jakarta city. The purpose of this study is to propose a revision of the seismic hazard map in Indonesian Seismic Code SNI 03-1726-2002. Some improvements in seismic hazard analysis were implemented in the analysis by considering the recent seismic activities around Java and Sumatra. The seismic hazard analysis was carried out using 3-dimension (3-D) seismic source models (fault source model) using the latest research works regarding the tectonic setting of Sumatra and Java. Two hazard levels were analysed for representing 10% and 2% probability of exceedance (PE) in 50 years ground motions for Sumatra and Java. Peak ground acceleration contour maps for those two hazard levels and two additional macrozonation maps for 10% PE in 50 years were produced during this research. These two additional maps represent short period (0.2 s) and long-period (1.0 s) spectra values at the bedrock. Microzonation study is performed in order to obtain ground motion parameters such as acceleration, amplification factor and response spectra at the surface of Jakarta. The analyses were carried out using nonlinear approach. The results were used to develop contour of acceleration at the surface of Jakarta. Finally, the design response spectra for structural design purposes are proposed in this study.     

Ground motion studies for microzonation in Iran

An important step in effectively reducing seismic risk and the vulnerability of a city located in an earthquake prone area is to conduct a ground motion microzonation study for the desired return period. The International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES) initiated a number of seismic microzonation projects for Iran. This paper presents the steps followed by IIEES in ground motion microzonation. IIEES performs both probabilistic and deterministic seismic hazard analysis. IIEES uses his own fault map for seismotectonic studies and develops modulus and damping curves for the soils in the study area. The experience of ground motion microzonation shows that in almost all cases, the estimated 475-year peak ground acceleration (PGA) values are higher than the PGA proposed by the Iranian seismic code. Although ground motion microzonation in Iran has some shortcomings, IIEES is making new improvement. This includes development in deterministic seismic hazard analysis, two-dimensional and three-dimensional modelling of basin and topographical effects, using microtremor measurements to find shear-wave velocity profiles in high-density urban areas and providing maps for spectral acceleration in the study area.     

Estimation of seismic hazard parameters in TERESA test areas

A general overview of some of the problems involved in earthquake catalogue handling is given as part of the works carried out into the ESC/SC8-TERESA project related with the seismic hazard assessment in two selected test areas: Sannio-Matese in Italy and the northern Rhine region (BGN). Furthermore, the necessary input data to be used in the calculation of seismic hazard has been obtained, including earthquake source zones and their seismic hazard parameters.The importance is pointed out of detailed analysis of seismic catalogues, mainly in relation to the use of aftershock information, the historical records of the region, and the possible temporal and spatial variation of seismicity, which could have an important influence on short-term hazard assessment.     

上海近岸海域高分辨率单道地震探测海浪干扰及其压制方法

近年来,由于近岸地质调查及沿岸工程建设的需要,高分辨率单道地震探测以其高分辨率、探测快速便捷的优势正在被越来越多地使用。上海近岸海域海浪情况复杂,常给探测带来大量干扰,特别是海浪引起的同相轴起伏可严重降低探测数据的分辨率。本文通过对上海近岸海域大量高分辨率单道地震探测数据的分析,总结了海浪对该方法的主要干扰类型及压制方法。实践证明,压制以后的地震数据质量得到了显著提高,保证了高分辨率单道地震探测的高分辨能力。     

Restoration of seismic data using the two-dimensional DMO equation

This paper presents a method for restoring missing seismic traces by using the two-dimensional dip moveout (DMO) equation. A fundamentally new formulation of the initial-boundary-value problem based on the Goursat problem is proposed. A modified finite element method is used for numerical solution. The method is tested on model examples and actual seismic data.     

A geographical information system managing geotechnical data for Athens (Greece) and its use for automated seismic microzonation

This article presents a geographical information system (GIS) which manages geotechnical data obtained from detailed geotechnical surveys as well as from in situ observations in Athens, Greece. Thoroughly examined data from more than 2,000 exploratory boreholes and trial pits located in the wider area of Athens have been incorporated using a relational database system. From the analysis of these results, thematic maps are compiled to illustrate the distribution of engineering geological information (e.g. the depth of the “Athens schist” head). In addition, a methodology for an automated GIS-aided seismic microzonation study is outlined and is being employed taking into account the aforementioned geotechnical and engineering geological information, as well as existing seismological data to estimate the variability of seismic ground motion for the southern part of Athens.     

二维土层地震反应分析的时域等效线性化解法

考虑非线性特征的局部复杂场地地震反应分析,一直是工程场地地震动预测中需解决的关键问题。借鉴目前一维成层场地地震反应分析中广泛使用的频域等效线性化思想,将其推广至时域及二维问题,提出了可用于考虑非线性特征的时域显式有限元方法,适用于复杂工程场地地震反应分析。本方法内域主要采用可实现显式算法的低阶有限元格式,人工边界处采用与显式算法相匹配的透射边界模拟无限域,单元内先通过求取平面应变状态下的最大切应变替代一维模型中的最大切应变,再依据整个时间过程的切应变求取等效切应变。每次整体求解采用时域中心差分的递推过程,并通过迭代完成非线性特征分析。为了验证本方法,选取水平成层场地及二维盆地两个典型场地模型进行模拟分析,将计算结果与传统的一维等效线性化模型及二维差分非线性计算结果做了对比,计算结果显示本文解与参考解非常吻合,证明了本文方法的可靠性。进一步采用该方法对美国Turkey Flat试验场地进行地表地震动模拟,计算结果与应用广泛的一维等效线性化模型及实测记录比较,探讨该方法的可靠性及与现有分析模型的差异,并阐述了非线性特征对地震动影响的规律。     

复杂区宽线地震资料处理技术及应用

宽线地震采集原始数据相比二维数据具有更丰富的信息。为充分挖掘宽线数据本身的优势和潜力,提升宽线数据处理效果,本文根据宽线数据和二维及三维数据的异同,借鉴了目前"两宽一高"三维地震数据处理流程,主要研究了宽线有源噪音压制及浅海拖缆宽线大羽角数据共中心点离散处理技术,提出了观测系统定义方式需要根据不同处理模块的要求进行实时变换的建议,总结完善了针对复杂区宽线处理技术策略,提升了宽线的处理成果剖面质量,为复杂区宽线地震资料处理总结了一些经验。