Pre-monsoon surface pressure and summer monsoon rainfall over India

Summary The relationship between the surface air pressure field during the pre-monsoon months and the Indian summer monsoon rainfall is analysed using climate data from 105 stations situated in Eurasia between 0°–60° N and 20°–100° E. Moreover, grid-point data for the whole northern hemisphere are used. Pressure during April over an area around 50° N and 35° E is found to show a significant negative correlation with the subsequent monsoon rainfall. During May the pressure over a large part of the study area south of 40° N shows a significant correlation with its highest value in the heat low region over Pakistan. It is assumed that monitoring of pressure variations over this region may be useful in predicting monsoon rainfall, particularly the rainfall during the first half of the season. Certain limitations of the climate data in this region are also discussed.With 5 Figures     

Probable maximum precipitation for a 2-day duration over the Indian Peninsula

Summary For the purpose of providing information to hydrologists for designing costly and large hydraulic structures, estimates of probable maximum precipitation (PMP) for a 2-day duration for stations in the Indian Peninsula lying between 8° N to 20° N were calculated using the Hershfield statistical techniqe. Maximum annual 2-day rainfall data of 80 years from 1901 for 131 stations in the region were used. In order to obtain values of PMP, an enveloping frequency factor (k _m ) curve based on the actual rainfall data of stations in the region was developed. The enveloping curve was then utilised to estimate 2-day PMP values of all the 131 stations. Based on these PMP estimates, a generalised chart showing the spatial distribution of 2-day PMP was prepared. It was found that 2-day PMP estimates over the Indian peninsula varied from 40 to 95 cm and the average ratio of 2-day PMP to the highest observed 2-day rainfall was found to be 1.76.With 2 Figures     

Rossby波和热带对流活动对2010年6月梅雨发生前后我国东部两次强降水过程的影响

基于574台站的逐日降水资料及NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料,在比较2010年梅雨期前后(6月7—11日和18—22日)我国东部两次强降水过程的大尺度环流型差异的基础上,从Rossby波活动通量及热带对流活动探讨了这两次强降水过程的异同。结果表明,相同之处在于:两次强降水过程期间中高纬度地区都存在Rossby波向下游传播,中纬度地区呈现双阻型式,低纬度地区西太平洋副热带高压(以下简称西太副高)强度偏强、西伸脊点位置偏西。不同之处在于:1)第一次降水过程中Rossby波的波源位于北欧地区附近,贝加尔湖地区为低槽,使得冷空气南下到36°N左右;同时孟加拉湾活跃的对流系统使西太副高加强西伸到95°E左右,冷暖空气交汇,导致强降水发生;2)第二次降水过程中Rossby波的波源位于北欧地区和中西伯利亚地区附近,东亚地区的低槽较第一次过程明显加深,有利于冷空气到达长江中下游地区(30°N左右),西太平洋暖池地区活跃的对流系统使得西太副高加强西伸到90°E左右,冷暖空气在长江中下游及其以南地区交汇,导致强降水发生。     

Estimation of probable maximum precipitation for catchments in eastern India by a generalized method

Summary A generalized method to estimate the probable maximum precipitation (PMP) has been developed for catchments in eastern India (80° E, 18° N) by pooling together all the major rainstorms that have occurred in this area. The areal raindepths of these storms are normalized for factors such as storm dew point temperature, distance of the storm from the coast, topographic effects and any intervening mountain barriers between the storm area and the moisture source. The normalized values are then applied, with appropriate adjustment factors in estimating PMP raindepths, to the Subarnarekha river catchment (upto the Chandil dam site) with an area of 5663 km². The PMP rainfall for 1, 2 and 3 days were found to be roughly 53 cm, 78 cm and 98 cm, respectively. It is expected that the application of the generalized method proposed here will give more reliable estimates of PMP for different duration rainfall events.With 5 Figures     

2010—2019年浙江暖季短时强降水特征分析

利用2010-2019年浙江省暖季(5-9月)1426个国家站和区域站小时雨量数据和NCEP 1° X 1°逐日4次再分析资料,分析了浙江省暖季短时强降水、极端短时强降水时空分布特征及区域性短时强降水事件,结果表明:①近10年暖季短时强降水频次呈增多趋势,降水强度变化平稳;8月(上旬)降水频次最多,9月(中旬)强度最强...     

Surface and upper air temperatures over India in relation to monsoon rainfall

Summary The relationship between the all-India summer monsoon rainfall and surface/upper air (850, 700, 500 and 200 mb levels) temperatures over the Indian region and its spatial and temporal characteristics have been examined to obtain a useful predictor for the monsoon rainfall. The data series of all-India and subdivisional summer monsoon rainfall and various seasonal air temperatures at 73 surface observatories and 9 radiosonde stations (1951–1980) have been used in the analysis. The Correlation Coefficients (CCs) between all-India monsoon rainfall and seasonal surface air temperatures with different lags relative to the monsoon season indicate a systematic relationship.The CCs between the monsoon rainfall and surface-air temperature of the preceding MAM (pre-monsoon spring) season are positive over many parts of India and highly significant over central and northwestern regions. The average surface air temperature of six stations i.e., Jodhpur, Ahmedabad, Bombay, Indore, Sagar and Akola in this region (Western Central India, WCI) showed a highly significant CC of 0.60 during the period 1951–1980. This relationship is also found to be consistently significant for the period from 1950 to present, though decreasing in magnitude after 1975. WCI MAM surface air temperature has shown significant CCs with the monsoon rainfall over eleven sub-divisions mainly in northwestern India, i.e., north of 15 °N and west of 80 °E.Upper air temperatures of the MAM season at almost all the stations and all levels considered show positive CCs with the subsequent monsoon rainfall. These correlations are significant at some central and north Indian stations for the lower and middle tropospheric temperatures.The simple regression equation developed for the period 1951–1980 isy = – 183.20 + 8.83x, wherey is the all-India monsoon rainfall in cm andx is the WCI average surface air temperature of MAM season in °C. This equation is significant at 0.1% level. The suitability of this parameter for inclusion in a predictive regression model along with five other global and regional parameters has been discussed. Multiple regression analysis for the long-range prediction of monsoon rainfall, using several combinations of these parameters indicates that the improvement of predictive skill considerably depends upon the selection of the predictors.With 9 Figures     

Intense rainfall events over the west coast of India

Summary The west coast of the Indian peninsula receives very heavy rainfall during the summer Monsoon (June–September) season with average rainfall over some parts exceeding 250 cm. Heavy rainfall events with rainfall more than 15 cm day⁻¹ at one or more stations along the west coast of India occur frequently and cause considerable damage. A special observational programme, Arabian Sea Monsoon Experiment, was carried out during the monsoon season of 2002 to study these events. The spatial and temporal distributions of intense rainfall events, presented here, were used for the planning of this observational campaign. The present study using daily rainfall data for summer monsoon season of 37 years (1951–1987) shows that the probability of getting intense rainfall is the maximum between 14° N–16° N and near 19° N. The probability of occurrence of these intense rainfall events is high from mid June to mid August, with a dip in early July. It has been believed for a long time that offshore troughs and vortices are responsible for these intense rainfall events. However, analysis of the characteristics of cloud systems associated with the intense rainfall events during 1985–1988 using very high resolution brightness temperature data from INSAT-IB satellite shows that the cloud systems during these events are characterized by large spatial scales and high cloud tops. Further study using daily satellite derived outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) data over a longer period (1975–1998) shows that, most of these events (about 62%) are associated with systems organized on synoptic and larger scales. We find that most of the offshore convective systems responsible for intense rainfall along the west coast of India are linked to the atmospheric conditions over equatorial Indian Ocean.     

Observed Trends in Severe Weather Conditions Based on Humidex,Wind Chill,and Heavy Rainfall Events in Canada for 1953–2012

Observed trends in severe weather conditions based on public alert statements issued by Environment Canada are examined for Canada. Changes in extreme heat and extreme cold events represented by various humidex and wind chill indices are analyzed for 1953–2012 at 126 climatological stations. Changes in heavy rainfall events based on rainfall amounts provided by tipping bucket rainfall gauges are analyzed for 1960–2012 at 285 stations. The results show that extreme heat events, defined as days with at least one hourly humidex value above 30, have increased significantly at more than 36% of the stations, most of which are located south of 55°N; days with nighttime hourly humidex values remaining above 20 have increased significantly at more than 52% of the stations, most of which are located south of 50°N. Extreme cold events represented by days with at least one hourly wind chill value below ?30 have decreased significantly at more than 76% of the stations across the country. No consistent changes were found in heavy rainfall events. Because city residents are very vulnerable to severe weather events, detailed results on changes in extreme heat, extreme cold, and heavy rainfall events are also provided for ten urban centres.     

四川省降雨灾情时空分布及其与雨量相关特征分析

利用四川省2002—2020年降雨灾情数据和156个国家气象观测站及5727个区域气象观测站逐日、逐小时降雨资料,分析四川省降雨灾情时空分布及其与雨量特征的联系。结果表明：四川省近年来降雨灾情数量增长明显,盆地西部、南部灾情数量最多,密度最大,凉山州和盆地东北部死亡人数最多。灾害主要发生在6—9月,灾情分布有从盆地东北部、南部向西部发展,最后到东北部的趋势。盆地在有大暴雨出现时灾害发生可能性最大,致灾频率50%以上,暴雨致灾频率20%～40%;攀西地区暴雨出现时致灾频率20%～30%;川西高原暴雨天气过程较少,大雨出现时致灾频率最大,为10%～30%。最大小时雨量盆地区在10 mm以下的灾害主要发生在盆南和盆东北,盆西在各个雨量等级范围内占比都较大,攀西地区灾害主要集中在10～40 mm,川西高原为20 mm以下。最大日降雨量小于50 mm的灾害主要分布在盆南,超过300 mm的主要发生在盆西北,50～100 mm以盆南和盆西南为主,攀西地区50～100 mm占比最大,川西高原为25～50 mm。     

基于Copula函数的北京强降水频率及危险性分析

客观分析强降水事件的发生频率及其致灾因子危险性,能为局地洪涝灾害的防灾、减灾规划及灾害预警提供科学依据。探讨了基于二元Copula函数的强降水致灾变量联合分布及其在强降水危险性分析中的应用。利用北京地区2005-2014年逐时降水资料提取强降水事件案例,通过建立能反映两个主要致灾因素--降水持续时间和过程降水量依存关系的二元联合分布模型,计算了北京地区强降水事件条件重现期,并以此为基础开展危险性分析。研究表明,北京地区强降水事件的持续时间多小于24 h,且主要服从广义极值和对数正态分布,而过程降水量则更适用于广义极值分布;通过Gumbel Copula函数能较好刻画过程降水量与持续时间的相互依存关系。北京地区短时强降水重现期受持续时间影响明显,仅基于降水量的重现期估算会低估其致灾危险性,利用基于Copula函数的条件重现期能更合理描述不同强降水情景致灾因子的危险性特征及其空间差异性特征。北京地区持续时间小于12 h、过程降水量在50 mm以上的强降水事件多呈东北-西南走向,而持续时间在6 h以内的50 mm以上强降水则在北京城区及东北部地区更加频繁。     

基于ECMWF细网格模式产品的湿螺旋度在四川盆地强降水预报的应用试验

利用欧洲中期数值预报中心(ECMWF)高分辨率预报场(0.25°×0.25°)资料以及四川省加密自动站降水量资料对2011年汛期7—9月和2012年5—7月共计20例强降水个例进行湿螺旋度指标的统计分析,分别归纳总结出6和24 h内强降水发生发展及落区分布的判据指标。利用这些判据指标对2012年8月30日至9月1日及9月8日发生在四川盆地的两例强降水过程及2013年汛期6—8月暴雨个例进行检验并在汛期投入了业务预报工作。检验结果表明:低层700或850 hPa湿螺旋度正值区的分布对强降水落区分布指示较好;当强降水发生时,24 h时效预报的24~48 h 3 h间隔预报场湿螺旋度数量值超过了指标值并持续了2个时次以上,达到了强降水发生的要求;零场预报的0~24 h及12 h时效预报的12~36 h间隔3 h预报场任一时刻湿螺旋度数量值达到了6 h指标判据值,对其后6 h的暴雨落区有较好的指示作用,可作为短时临近预报的业务参考;湿螺旋度订正预报暴雨发生的TS评分远高于ECMWF模式,预报效果好。     

Rainfall and the 6–9 day wave-like disturbance in West-Africa during summer 1989

Summary Using ECMWF analyses and daily rain amounts of 569 stations in Western Africa for summer 1989, the study documents the composite structure of the 6–9 day oscillation and its influence on rain. Rain is modulated by vorticity as displayed in the wave composite. There are rainfall maxima coincident with cyclonic vorticity and rainfall minima coincident with anticyclonic vorticity at the 700hPa level, at 17.5°N and 7.5°N.With 6 Figures     

Pattern characteristics of Indian monsoon rainfall using principal component analysis (PCA)

In the present study the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is used to determine the dominant rainfall patterns from rainfall records over India. Pattern characteristics of seasonal monsoon rainfall (June–September) over India for the period 1940 to 1990 are studied for 68 stations. The stations have been chosen on the basis of their correlation with all India seasonal rainfall after taking the ‘t’ Student distribution test (5% level). The PCA is carried out on the rainfall data to find out the nature of rainfall distribution and percentage of variance is estimated. The first principal component explains 55.50% of the variance and exhibits factor of one positive value throughout the Indian subcontinent. It is characterized by an area of large positive variation between 10°N and 20°N extending through west coast of India. These types of patterns mostly occur due to the monsoon depression in the head Bay of Bengal and mid-tropospheric low over west coast of India. The analysis identifies the spatial and temporal characteristics of possible physical significance. The first eight principal component patterns explain for 96.70% of the total variance.     

Role of cumulus parameterization schemes in simulating heavy rainfall episodes off the coast of Maharashtra state during 28 June–4 July 2007

Indian summer monsoon gives on an average 250 cm of rainfall due to mesoscale/synoptic scale systems over west coast of India; now-a-days, MM5 model plays a very crucial role in simulating such heavy rainfall episodes like Mumbai (India) on 26 July 2005, which caused devastation through flash floods. The main aim of this study is to simulate such heavy rainfall episodes using three different cumulus parameterization schemes (CPS) namely Kain–Fritsch-1, Anthes–Kuo and Grell and to compare their relative merits in identifying the characteristics of mesoscale systems over 14 stations in coastal Maharashtra state during 28 June–4 July 2007. MM5 control experiment results are analysed for the fields of mean sea level pressure, wind, geopotential height at 850 hPa and rainfall with the above schemes. It is interesting to note that Kain–Fritsch-1 scheme simulates heavy rainfall amount of 48 cm for an observed rainfall of 51 cm in 24 h. The Grell scheme underestimates heavy rainfall episodes, while the Anthes–Kuo scheme is found to over predict rainfall on both temporal and spatial scales. The reason for better performance of KF-1 scheme may be due to inclusion of updrafts and downdrafts. Later the simulated rainfall quantities at 14 stations over study region are validated with both 3B42RT and observed rain gauge data of India Meteorological Department (IMD) and the results are promising. Finally, for the heavy rainfall prediction cases, the best threat score is at 0.25 mm threshold for three CPSs. Thus, this study is a breakthrough in pointing out that the KF-1 experiment has the best skill in predicting heavy rainfall episodes.     

Trends in the annual extreme rainfall events of 1 to 3 days duration over India

Summary In this paper, the annual extreme rainfall series in the time scale of 1 to 3 days duration at 316 stations, well distributed over the Indian region, covering 80-years of rainfall data from 1901 to 1980 were analysed for trend and persistence using standard statistical tests. It has been found that the annual extreme rainfall records of most stations are free from trend and persistence. However, the extreme rainfall series at stations over the west coast north of 12°N and at some stations to the east of the Western Ghats over the central parts of the Peninsula showed a significant increasing trend at 95% level of confidence. Stations over the southern Peninsula and over the lower Ganga valley have been found to exhibit a decreasing trend at the same level of significance. The data series of the stations which showed trends were subjected to a 10-year moving average and the resulting smoothed series have been discussed. It may be said that this increasing or decreasing trend in the annual extreme rainfall events at a few places will have tremendous implications in the hydrologic studies and dam design projects.With 9 Figures     

强弱天气尺度强迫下广东短时强降水时空特征分析

利用2010—2019年广东区域自动站逐时雨量定义短时强降水日,采用500 hPa和700 hPa广东区域日平均垂直速度来客观衡量天气尺度强迫,并对年均和强/弱天气尺度强迫下的短时强降水进行时空分布特征分析,结果表明：广东区域的短时强降水主要发生在4—9月,发生频次具有准双峰的日变化;粤西是短时强降水最频发区;茂名山区的短时强降水主要发生在白天,弱天气尺度强迫下占比达80%以上;频发次中心位于珠江三角洲,持续1小时以上的短时强降水占该地发生频次75%。强天气尺度强迫下短时强降水4—6月最多,弱天气尺度强迫下则7月达到峰值。弱天气尺度强迫下,仅历时1小时的短时强降水在粤北河源-梅州北部山区、粤东莲花山脉附近有次中心;历时2小时及以上的相对集中在粤西、珠江三角洲北部和粤东惠州-汕尾一带;3月肇庆-云浮和珠江口附近弱天气尺度个例占比高;7月粤北占比高;早晨07时在粤西阳江沿海有孤立的高频中心。     

Evidence of climatic change in Nigeria based on annual series of rainfall of different daily amounts, 1919–1985

Annual series of light rainfall, moderate rainfall and heavy rainfall are computed for 4 zones arranged from south to north in Nigeria: Coastal, Guinea-Savanna, Midland and Sahelian zones. Daily rainfall data for the period 1919–85 are utilized. Each series is examined for evidence of change in structure in terms of pattern of decrease and increase in dry and wet years, the overall trend, and the occurrence of runs of dry and wet years. The northern Nigeria (Midland and Sahel) heavy rainfall series and the Sahel moderate rainfall series are found to depict evidence of climatic change as defined by Landsberg (1975) that climatic conditions must change to a new equilibrium position with the values of climatic elements changed significantly. On the other hand Landsberg's definition of climatic fluctuations as involving temporary deflection which can revert to earlier conditions is found to fit the 4 regional light rainfall series and the Midland area moderate rainfall series. The southern Nigeria moderate and heavy rainfall series are found to depict only evidence of high frequency oscillations about a stable long-term mean. The recent drought in Nigeria north of about 9° N is shown to be associated with a large decline in moderate and heavy rainfalls over this part of the country.     

20世纪90年代以来东北暴雨过程特征分析

使用1990～2005年全国730站日降水资料和NCEP格点分析资料对1990～2005年东北地区大暴雨过程进行了分类研究,探讨21世纪前后夏季东北暴雨的主要特征.按照东北地区日降雨量大于50 mm的站点数不少于5个的标准,统计出1990～2005年东北地区的69个暴雨个例(共90天).在统计的基础上,进一步对造成大范围暴雨过程的天气形势进行分类研究.考虑阻塞高压、热带、副热带系统和西风带之间的相互关系,将暴雨过程的主要影响系统大致分为6类:(1)台风与西风带系统(西风槽、东北低涡)的远距离相互作用(20个,28.9%);(2)登陆台风(或南来低涡)北上与西风带系统(西风槽、东北低涡)相互作用(16个,23.2%);(3)台风直接暴雨(1个,1.5%);(4)低槽冷锋暴雨(16个,23.2%);(5)低空切变型暴雨(2个,2.9%);(6)东北低涡暴雨(14个,20.3%).在所有个例中与台风有关的共有37个,超过一半,占总数53.6%.台风的远距离水汽输送或登陆台风北上与西风带系统相互作用是东北地区产生大暴雨或持续性大暴雨的重要环流条件.此外,东北低涡和西风槽前系统造成暴雨个例也比较多,也是东北地区大范围暴雨的重要影响系统,低槽冷锋暴雨和东北低涡暴雨也各分为4小类.低空切变暴雨的切变线一般在低层较为明显.上述分析表明,夏季东北地区暴雨过程种类繁多,情况较为复杂,且进入新世纪以来该区降雨过程较为活跃,值得深入研究.     

Analysis of mid-twentieth century rainfall trends and variability over southwestern Uganda

A methodology has been applied to investigate the spatial variability and trends existent in a mid-twentieth century climatic time series (for the period 1943–1977) recorded by 58 climatic stations in the Albert–Victoria water management area in Uganda. Data were subjected to quality checks before further processing. In the present work, temporal trends were analyzed using Mann–Kendall and linear regression methods. Heterogeneity of monthly rainfall was investigated using the precipitation concentration index (PCI). Results revealed that 53 % of stations have positive trends where 25 % are statistically significant and 45 % of stations have negative trends with 23 % being statistically significant. Very strong trends at 99 % significance level were revealed at 12 stations. Positive trends in January, February, and November at 40 stations were observed. The highest rainfall was recorded in April, while January, June, and July had the lowest rainfall. Spatial analysis results showed that stations close to Lake Victoria recorded high amounts of rainfall. Average annual coefficient of variability was 19 %, signifying low variability. Rainfall distribution is bimodal with maximums experienced in March–April–May and September–October–November seasons of the year. Analysis also revealed that PCI values showed a moderate to seasonal rainfall distribution. Spectral analysis of the time components reveals the existence of a major period around 3, 6, and 10 years. The 6- and 10-year period is a characteristic of September–October–November, March–April–May, and annual time series.     

长江流域近40年强降水的变化趋势

利用长江流域109个气象站1960-2001年的逐日降水资料，采用泰森多边形方法计算整个长江流域的面雨量，研究了长江流域面雨量的变化趋势。结果表明：长江流域年面雨量呈增加趋势，但不显著。从长江流域各站暴雨日数和暴雨量趋势变化的空间分布来看，长江流域年、夏季6～8月的暴雨日数和暴雨量表现为较大范围的增加趋势，但通过显著性检验的站并不多，显著增加的中心在江西省。