Geotechnical characterisation of pyroclastic soils involved in huge flowslides

Landslides of the flow type involving granular geo-materials frequently result in casualties and damage to property because of the long travel distance and the high velocities that these may attain. This was true for the events that took place in Campania Region (Southern Italy) in May 1998, involving pyroclastic soils originating from explosive activities of the Somma-Vesuvius volcano. Although these phenomena have frequently affected various areas of the Campania region over the last few centuries, there were no useful geological and geotechnical references available in the aftermath of the May 1998 events. For this reason Salerno University, which was involved in the scientific management of the emergency, addressed the issue of acquiring data on the geological, geomorphological and hydrogeological features of the slopes where the landslides had taken place. The information acquired made it possible to set up a slope evolution model that is able to interpret, from a geological point of view, past and more recent landslides that had occurred in the same area. As preliminary geotechnical analyses had already validated the above model, more detailed investigations were performed both on the pore pressure regimen of the covers still in place as well as on the physical and mechanical properties of pyroclastic soils, in saturated and unsaturated conditions. The present paper begins by discussing the data acquired during the .rst phase of the studies and then goes on to illustrate the laboratory results so far obtained with the aid of approximate procedures. These help advance our knowledge of pyroclastic soils within a reasonable time frame, thus improving landslide triggering analysis.     

Geotechnical properties of evaporite soils of the Dead Sea area

The Dead Sea Basin is the lowest point on earth and is tectonically subsiding. During the Holocene Period the climate became much drier with increasing evaporation whereby initially lacustrine sediments were deposited from the non-marine brines, giving a multi-layered stratigraphy of lime carbonate and halite sediments. The lime carbonate sediments are comprised of laminated, clay to silt sized, clastic sediments (calcite) and authigenic aragonite and gypsum. The halite commonly appears as rock salt. Chemical industries, based on harvesting the salts from the Dead Sea, have developed on both the Israeli and the Jordanian sides of the basin. The lime carbonate soils are used for dike construction, and these soils, together with significant salt layers, are encountered in the foundations of structures, dikes, and tailings dams, requiring definition of their geotechnical properties. Use of standard soil mechanics definitions and testing approaches for the lime carbonates have been found inapplicable, particularly in view of their exceptionally high saline content, and it has been necessary to develop new concepts. The rock salt is encountered at shallow depths, with unit weights considerably lower than those usually discussed in the literature, and with correspondingly different mechanical properties. The geotechnical properties of these soils, and approaches used to define them, are discussed in the paper.     

Engineering approach to interpretation of oedometer tests performed on collapsible soils

Two mathematical models were selected for describing soil collapsibility. The elastic behavior of quasi-uniform materials was utilized for modeling one-dimensional compression of ‘dry’ soil specimens. Water-saturated soil specimens were modeled as elastic materials where deformation properties ‘improve’ during stress increase. Two simple formulas are offered for the interpretation of the double oedometer tests. The validity of these formulas derived within the common stress domain was demonstrated. The analytical expressions derived from the double oedometer tests may be utilized in the interpretation of the single oedometer tests. The effectiveness of the suggested method in the interpretation of single oedometer test was illustrated using the test results published in the literature.     

Numerical analysis of wetting-induced instabilities in partially saturated soils under plane strain conditions

This paper concerns the hydromechanical stability of partially saturated soils during wetting. The response of a loose silty sand is numerically/theoretically investigated with the main aim of identifying both triggering mechanisms and predisposing factors to instability. This latter is testified by both a rapid increase in the pore water pressure and an unexpected loss of numerical convergence. The study has been conducted at different scales from laboratory tests to boundary value problems, and in both cases, the controllability theory has been employed to both interpret and justify the numerical results.     

我国特殊岩土研究

本文分析，总结了我国特殊岩土理论与应用研究方面的新进展，内容涉及湿陷性黄土，软土膨胀岩土，红土，软岩和特殊土的结构性，指出需要进一步研究的问题，最后对特殊土的研究方法做了阐述。     

Passive earth pressure of overconsolidated collapsible soil subjected to inundation

ABSTRACT

Backfills behind retaining walls are often made of collapsible soils, which are subjected to wetting by surface running water or by rising the groundwater table. Collapsible soil shows considerable strength when it is dry or at a relatively low degree of saturation and experiences excessive and sudden settlement when it is inundated. This paper presents an experimental investigation on walls retaining overconsolidated collapsible soil subjected to passive earth pressure. A prototype model of a vertical wall, retaining horizontal backfill was developed. Collapsible soil was prepared in the laboratory by mixing kaolin clay with fine sand. The model was instrumented to measure the total passive earth force on the wall, the passive earth pressure at strategic locations on the wall, and the overconsolidation ratio of the soil in the testing tank. The state of passive pressure was developed by pushing the wall horizontally toward the backfill without any rotation. Tests were conducted on walls retaining overconsolidated collapsible soil at the dry and at full saturation conditions. Results showed that for the dry state, the passive earth pressure increases with the increase of the collapse potential and overconsolidation ratio, and was significantly dropped at full saturation.     

Shear induced collapse settlement of arid soils

This paper presents the results of studies of deformation, strength and collapsibility of loess soils. Samples were taken from Al Dalam in central Saudi Arabia, which resembles an arid region. These samples were subjected to various laboratory tests to determine their physical and engineering properties. Sets of oedometer and direct shear tests were carried out in which the initial dry density and the normal pressure at wetting and shearing were each varied in turn. Oedometer results indicate that collapse potential decreases with density and increases logarithmically with normal pressure. Shear induces further collapse potential which increase with density due to further destruction of soil fabric. A unique shear stress–shear strain relationship was obtained for specimens prepared at different initial fabrics. Dry and soaked failure envelopes were both non-linear in the low-pressure range. Wetting induced a reduction in the shear strength parameters. The results of the tests are reported, and the significance of each variable is assessed.     

Analysis of spatial variability of SPT penetration resistance in collapsible soils considering water table depth

Geostatistical kriging approach was used for mapping of water table depth and for checking its influence on penetration resistance observed in standard penetration test (SPT). Geostatistical mapping was based on a compartmentalisation of 204 SPT records in two main groups using monthly and yearly rainfall marks as a segregation criterion. Six maps produced at 1:10,000 scale were achieved as follows: water table depth variation and penetration resistance variation at the depths of 1.5, 6.0, 8.5, 11.0, 13.5 m. Greater variations of the penetration resistance, in terms of increase and reduction of resistance, were observed at the depths of 6.0 and 8.5 m.     

黄土的独立物性指标及其与湿陷性参数的相关性分析

黄土的湿陷性是其重要的工程特性,常用一维压缩应力条件下的湿陷系数、自重湿陷系数和湿陷起始压力等指标定量评价。影响黄土湿陷性的因素较多,包括土的粒度、密度、湿度等基本物理性质指标,且各因素之间并非完全独立,存在一定相关性。采用因子分析法,通过对西安地铁4号线黄土高台地和宝鸡-兰州高速铁路隧道黄土塬湿陷性黄土场地地层物性质指标的统计分析和相关性分析,首先确定了相对独立的含水比（含水率与液限之比）和孔隙比3个物性指标反映的两个因子。然后,依据湿陷性黄土场地的试验资料,通过多元线性回归分析,分别得到了两个场地黄土的自重湿陷系数、湿陷起始压力以及压缩模量与含水比和孔隙比之间的相关关系。最后,比较分析了两个场地黄土自重湿陷系数、湿陷起始压力和压缩模量计算值与实测值,验证了利用因子分析法寻找影响黄土湿陷性的独立因子,建立黄土湿陷性参数与独立影响因子之间相关关系的合理性和准确性。针对两个地区两类地貌单元湿陷性黄土场地,建立的黄土湿陷性参数的相关关系具有快速、准确的评价黄土湿陷性和黄土地基湿陷变形的实际意义。     

强夯法加固湿陷性黄土的微观研究

黄土的湿陷性对于建筑的安全具有极大的危害性,而强夯法可以有效地消除黄土的湿陷性。通过对强夯前后湿陷性黄土的物理力学性质及微观结构进行对比分析,强夯效果沿深度可分为三段,从3 m至8 m为强夯效果最佳段。强夯使土体中孔径大于20 μm的孔隙含量减少,小于5 μm的孔隙含量增加,土体的致密程度提高。     

The impact of cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behaviour of stabilized expansive soils

Black cotton soil (BCS) deposits, stabilized with waste materials-wood-ash and organic matter (leaves, grass, etc.) exist in BCS areas of North Karnataka, India. These ash-modified soils (AMS) are apparently stabilized by hydrated lime produced by biochemical, dissolution, and hydration reactions. The influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behaviour of wood-ash-modified BCS and laboratory lime-treated BCS specimens are examined in this study. Such a study is required to assess the long-term behaviour of chemically stabilized soils in geotechnical applications. Cyclic wetting and drying caused the AMS specimens to become more porous and less saturated. Consequently, the cyclically wetted and dried (or desiccated) AMS specimens collapsed significantly at the experimental flooding pressures. The beneficial effects of lime-stabilization of the BCS specimens were also partially lost in cyclically wetting and drying them. The clay contents of the lime-treated BCS specimens increased on cyclic wetting and drying. The increased clay contents in turn, affected their Atterberg limits and swell–shrink potentials. Partial loss of inter-particle cementation, increased porosity, and reduced degree of saturation, also imparted small to moderate collapse potentials to the desiccated lime-treated BCS specimens.     

Quantifying engineering parameters of expansive soils from their reflectance spectra

Occurrence of expansive soils in construction sites has serious implications on planning, design, construction, maintenance, and overall performance especially of lightweight engineering infrastructures. Such soils are particularly susceptible to large volume changes in response to moisture content fluctuations following seasonal climatic variations. This can lead to deformation of structures built up on them. For this study, soil samples were collected from the eastern part of Addis Ababa. Specific expansive soil engineering parameters namely; Atterberg limits (LL, PL and PI), free swell and cation exchange capacity were measured in a soil mechanics laboratory. Reflectance spectra of each soil sample were acquired in a remote sensing laboratory using ASD fieldspec full range spectrometer. A multivariate calibration method, partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis, through simple wavelength approach, was used to construct empirical prediction models for estimating engineering parameters of expansive soils from their respective reflectance spectra. Correlation coefficients of 0.90, 0.87, 0.71, 0.81 and 0.71 for CEC, LL, PL, PI and FS respectively were obtained. The correlation coefficients showed that large portion of variations in engineering parameters of expansive soils could be accounted for by spectral parameters. Apart from these high correlation coefficients, small root mean square errors of calibration (RMSEC) and prediction (RMSEP), standard error of calibration (SEC) and prediction (SEP) and minimum bias were obtained. The results indicate potential of spectroscopy in deriving engineering parameters of expansive soils from their respective reflectance spectra and hence, its potential applicability in supporting geotechnical investigations of such soils.     

PHC管桩在湿陷性黄土中的应用

结合工程实例,对高强预应力混凝土管桩(PHC)在湿陷性黄土地区的应用进行了理论计算及试验研究。结果显示,在考虑土塞效应后,根据规范公式计算的单桩极限承载力值偏于保守。此外,根据单桩静载荷试验,验证了当Q-S曲线为缓变型时,采用多项式拟合法推测单桩竖向承载力标准值以及采用S-lgQ法确定单桩总极限侧阻力值的方法,与实际情况较为吻合。     

粉性土毛管水的力学和工程特性

阐述了毛管水对土体强度、变形和渗流的影响。粉性土既有较高的毛管水头,又有一定的渗透性,水压传递快;毛管水对此类土的地基、基坑和堤坝等工程有明显的影响。研究的主要成果有：①根据试样浸水与否的无侧限抗压强度比较试验及理论分析,证明毛管水张力增高了土体强度,强度增高的数值,试验结果和理论分析相符;②计算分析雨季粉性土地表层毛管水张力消失和土体膨胀的过程;③借砂模试验和电拟试验,分析了毛管水对堤坝渗流流态的影响,毛管水增高了渗流量和出逸点高度;④提出了砂土和粉性土毛管水头hc和渗透系数k新的经验计算式。研究成果可应用于粉性土地基、基坑和堤坝等工程。     

基于广义塑性力学的黄土湿陷变形本构关系

分析了黄土湿陷变形的塑性特性,基于广义塑性力学原理建立了湿陷变形的增量本构关系。将增湿含水量作为内应力,应用常规三轴浸水试验拟合得出了湿陷体积屈服面和剪切屈服面,并且给出了黄土湿陷变形的起始屈服面。该模型能够反映湿陷性黄土在不同湿陷作用,即水和力的不同组合作用下的湿陷变形特性,考虑了湿陷体积变形和湿陷剪切变形以及球应力和偏应力对它们的交叉影响。     

湿陷性黄土试坑浸水试验中土压力变化特征分析

通过在山西运城湿陷性黄土地区进行的现场试坑浸水试验,首次将土压力数据传感器引入浸水试验当中,较为精确记录了试验过程中不同深度土层的土压力的变化特征,并将此变化特征与试验沉降观测数据进行了对比分析,了解了二者之间的变化方式及规律,从而阐明了湿陷性黄土遇水发生湿陷而产生沉降变形的临界条件及时间点,即沉降或突降的发生一般是在土层压力变化至最小或接近最小的时段。     

湿陷性黄土地基处理新途径的探讨

在化学材料加固黄土试验与查阅相关资料的基础上,分析了湿陷性黄土地基处理技术的研究进展,探讨了强夯法和化学加固法在湿陷性黄土地基处理中存在的优势及问题。强夯法相对较为成熟,造价低廉,但强夯后的黄土地基不抗水;高分子材料固化处理强度高,价格昂贵,其最大的优点是固化后黄土地基的水稳性好。以系统科学思维为指导,借鉴全寿命成本设计理念,提出了强夯法与高分子材料固化组合处理,以发挥两者优点的湿陷性黄土地基处理新途径;建议以创建这一组合加固湿陷性黄土的新方法为研究目标,进一步开展相关的探索研究。     

膨胀土判别与分类方法探讨

膨胀土的胀缩等级评判是进行膨胀土处治的首要任务,开展膨胀土的判别与分类方法探讨具有重要意义。对现有膨胀土判别与分类方法进行了评价,对反映和表征膨胀土胀缩机理和特性的指标进行了深入探讨,提出了以能充分反映和表征膨胀土胀缩机理和特性的液限、塑性指数、自由膨胀率、小于0.005 mm颗粒含量、胀缩总率等5个指标作为膨胀土的判别指标,建立了一种新的膨胀土判别与分类方法,并通过试验进行了验证。新的膨胀土判别与分类方法具有准确度高、易操作的优点。     

挤密桩处理湿陷性黄土地基的现场试验研究

湿陷性黄土地区的多层建筑大多数都会遇到地基处理的问题,用素土桩、灰土桩、碎石桩等各种桩处理地基的湿陷性是常用的方法。为检验挤密桩处理湿陷性黄土地基的效果,设计了现场试验,试验方案中考虑了桩心距、处理深度、处理范围及桩孔填料等不同影响因素,设置了8个试验点。各点处理后测得了两桩间和3桩间等距离的5个点上的土体密度变化数值。之后对各点加载200 kPa,做小面积（小坑）浸水测试和大面积（整个场地,28 m×16 m）浸水测试,测量两种浸水条件下各试验点的湿陷量。由此总结了该种工程方法处理地基湿陷性的效果和规律性。结果表明：桩心距应控制在2.5倍桩径以内,可保证消除挤密桩间所有面积的湿陷性,超出挤密桩长以下地层的湿陷性仍然存在;小面积浸水发生的湿陷为外荷湿陷,大面积浸水才能释放试验场地地基的全部湿陷量,而与处理深度无关;灰土填料显然优于素土填料,在地基主要持力层内须用灰土填料,但对于其下地层或自重湿陷不严重的部位强调使用灰土填料是不必要的。     

湿陷性黄土变形的微结构突变模型研究

根据湿陷性黄土的湿陷特点,分析了其主要影响因素,包括外部因素：水、荷载与内部因素微结构及其力学性质。从湿陷性黄土的湿陷性影响出发,建立了湿陷性黄土结构失稳突变模型,并从模型基本假定、微结构模型应力特性和湿化于微结构失稳的突变关系3个方面进行了理论分析研究,在一定程度上揭示出湿陷性黄土变形机制和规律。通过微结构突变失稳理论发现：当应力状态满足孔隙微结构失稳判别式时,微结构元的变形状态将诱发微结构失稳崩塌。微结构的稳定性与结构刚度 和受力状态 密切相关。地下水不仅改变了颗粒的受力情况,更重要的是使颗粒间连接刚度降低,从而导致微结构失稳。