The denudation history of the Argentera Alpine External Crystalline Massif (Western Alps,France-Italy): an overview from the analysis of fission tracks in apatites and zircons

Apatite/zircon fission track (FT) records of the Argentera external crystalline massif (Western Alps) show three tectonic pulses, respectively at 22 Ma (zircons), 6 and 3.5 Ma (apatites). The first pulse is consistent with the basement exhumation and initiation of the major deformation recorded in the foreland of the belt from Middle to early Upper Miocene. The two others might be respectively local expressions of the syncollisional extension mainly controlled by a westward sedimentary cover detachment and a Plio-Quaternary uplift acceleration. Zircon ages of 50-80 Ma in a limited NW area and evidence of an uplift elsewhere show that in a large fraction of the massif, temperatures in post-Variscan times never reached 320°C. Finally, FT data show that the Argentera massif did not behave as a single block during its denudation. First, in the NW of the massif, a small fault-limited block was already separated since the Cretaceous and later on recorded the 6 Ma denudation event, the 22 Ma pulse being recorded only in the remaining part of the massif. Second, less than 3.5 Ma ago, the northeastern part of the massif overthrust the southwestern block along the Bersézio-Veillos fault zone.     

No significant Alpine tectonic overprint on the Cimmerian Strandja Massif (SE Bulgaria and NW Turkey)

We provide the first comprehensive picture of the thermochronometric evolution of the Cimmerian Strandja metamorphic massif of SE Bulgaria and NW Turkey, concluding that the bulk of the massif has escaped significant Alpine-age deformation. Following Late Jurassic heating, the central part of the massif underwent a Kimmeridgian-Berriasian phase of relatively rapid cooling followed by very slow cooling in Cretaceous-to-Early Eocene times. These results are consistent with a Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Neocimmerian (palaeo-Alpine) phase of north-verging thrust imbrication and regional metamorphism, followed by slow cooling/exhumation driven by erosion. From a thermochronometric viewpoint, the bulk of the Cimmerian Strandja orogen was largely unaffected by the compressional stress related to the closure of the Vardar–?zmir–Ankara oceanic domain(s) to the south, contrary to the adjacent Rhodopes. Evidence of Alpine-age deformation is recorded only in the northern sector of the Strandja massif, where both basement and sedimentary rocks underwent cooling/exhumation associated with an important phase of shortening of the East Balkan fold-and-thrust belt starting in the Middle–Late Eocene. Such shortening focused in the former Srednogorie rift zone because this area had been rheologically weakened by Late Cretaceous extension.     

Tectonic progradation and plate tectonic evolution of the Alps

Rifting and spreading, trench formation, flysch deposition, subduction and nappe formation prograde from internal to external parts of the Alpine orogen. The progradation is a characteristic feature of the evolution of the Alps. A plate tectonics model based on this cognition is presented and an attempt is made to integrate the plate movements of the Alpine region during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic into the plate pattern of the Western Mediterranean.

Important events in the evolution of the Alps are the successive opening and closing of the Piedmont (South Penninic) and Valais (North Penninic) oceans, and the two continental collisions related to this. The southward drift of the Briançonian plate in the Cretaceous closes the Piedmont and opens the Valais ocean. The evolution of these oceans is related to the plate movements in the North Atlantic. The second continental collision is followed by the formation of an exogeosyncline, the molasse foredeep.

Prograding orogens like the Alps are most likely to evolve in an originally continental environment by rifting. Retrograding orogens, however, indicate an originally oceanic environment with well-developed magmatic arcs and back-arc basins.     

Retrograde P-T-t path for the Voltri Massif eclogites (Ligurian Alps, Italy): some tectonic implications

The retrograde P-T trajectory of the eclogitic Fe-Ti-gabbros from the Ligurian Alps is constrained by the appearance of mineral parageneses post-dating the Na-clinopyroxene + garnet eclogitic assemblage and indicating the following sequence of metamorphic events: (1) amphibolitic stage— edenite/katophorite + plagioclase (An_33–43) + oxides in symplectitic aggregates; (2) glaucophanic stage— a porphyroblastic glaucophanic amphibole has overgrown the symplectite, winchite also occurs as thin rims around glaucophane and both amphiboles are, sometimes, armoured by atoll garnets; (3) albite-amphibolite stage—barroisite/katophorite + albite + epidote + oxides ± chlorite overprint the glaucophanic stage minerals; (4) greenschist stage—represented by actinolite + albite + epidote + oxide paragenesis.
The metamorphic evolution is complex and the decompression path, on a P–T diagram, is significantly different from those defined in the literature for the Voltri eclogites. The main features inferred from the P–T path are the following: (1) the pressure climax does not match the thermal climax, the maximum temperature conditions are in fact achieved during the early stage of uplift; (2) a decrease in temperature, suggested by the appearance of glaucophane after the amphibolitic symplectite; (3) successive uplift, probably accompanied by an increase in temperature. The complexity of the P-T path drawn for the Voltri eclogites can be explained with a mechanism of successive underthrusts propagating from the innermost to the outermost sector of the Ligurian Alps.     

Geodynamic and tectonic evolution of the southeastern Bohemian Massif: The Thaya section (Austria)

Summary The tectonostratigraphy within eastern sections of the Bohemian Massif includes two different terranes. A Proterozoic terrane is composed of the Moravo-Silesian parautochthon, the Moravian nappe complex and the Moldanubian Variegated and Monotonous complexes. A Paleozoic terrane includes the Gföhl Gneiss and the granulite klippen. Both terranes are separated by an oceanic suture zone which is represented by the Letovice ophiolite complex (Czech Republic) and the Raabs complex in Austria. The Raabs structural unit is interpreted to represent a tectonic melange of a dismembered ophiolite complex and metaandesites.The tectonic evolution of the southeastern Bohemian Massif includes: (1) Paleozoic extension predating late Variscan nappe stacking; (2) Variscan (c. 350-320 Ma) NE-directed nappe assembly by foreward propagation of thick-skinned nappes, whereas individual thrusts initiated within different crustal levels; (3) post-stacking Variscan W-E extension which was responsible for penetrative nappe internal deformations; and, (4) dispersion of units by a system of dextral strike-slip faults and genetically related thrust- and normal faults. The kinematic history during Variscan convergence is explained to have been related to oblique (dextral) transpression of Proterozoic against Paleozoic terranes.

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Geodynamische und tektonische Entwicklung der südöstlichen Böhmischen Masse: Das Thaya Profil (Österreich)

Zusammenfassung Eine Gliederung der südöstlichen Böhmischen Masse umfaßt zwei kontinentale Blöcke (Terranes). Das proterozoische Terrane besteht aus dem Moravo-Silesischen Parautochton, den Moravischen Decken und basalen Anteilen des Moldanubikums (Bunte Serie und Monotone Serie). Das paläozoische Terrane umfaßt den Moldanubischen Gföhler Gneis und die Granulitklippen. Beide Krustenblöcke werden durch eine ozeanische Sutur getrennt, die durch den Letovice-Ophiolith (Tschechien) und die Raabser Einheit (Österreich) repräsentiert ist. Die Raabser Einheit wird als eine tektonische Melange, bestehend aus einem Ophiolith und einer kalkalkalischen, andesitischen Suite gedeutet. Die tektonische Entwicklung läßt folgende Entwicklungsstufen erkennen: (1) Paläozoische Krustenextension vor der spätvariszischen Deckenstapelung; (2) Spätvariszische (ca. 350-320 Ma) nordostgerichtete Deckenstapelung, wobei jüngere Decken in Richtung des Vorlandes progradierten. Dabei wurden einzelne Deckenbahnen in unterschiedlichen Krustenniveaus betätigt; (3) Generelle West-Ost Extension und Entwicklung des penetrativen Gefüges nach der Deckenstapelung; (4) Verteilung der Einheiten durch gleichzeitige Aktivität von steilen nordost-streichenden Scherzonen und flachen Auf- und Abschiebungen. Die kinematische Entwicklung während der variszischen Gebirgsbildung ist auf schräge (dextrale) Plattenkonvergenz zwischen dem proterozoischen und dem paläozoischen Terrane zurückzuführen.

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With 10 Figures     

Geometry and kinematics of early Alpine nappes in a Briançonnais basement (Ambin Massif,Western Alps)

Petrological and structural observations from the Ambin pre-alpine basement dome and from its Briançonnais and Piedmont covers show an early D1 nappe-forming event overprinted by a major D2 (+?D3) ductile shearing deformation. The D1 event is characterised by garnet-blueschist facies metamorphic assemblages retrogressed to greenschist facies conditions during D2 then D3 stages near the top of the dome. North-verging D1 structures preserved in the core of the dome are consistent with alpine evolutionary models, in which exhumation of HP–LT metamorphic alpine rocks occurs initially in a north–south direction. To cite this article: J. Ganne et al., C. R. Geoscience 336 (2004).     

Middle-Late Alpine thermotectonic evolution of the southern Rhodope Massif,Greece

The transition from the Alpine tectonic assembly to the exhumation of the units in the Rhodope metamorphic province in northernmost Greece has been refined by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar laserprobe mica analyses. Preservation of pre-Alpine (∼ 280 Ma and 145 Ma) muscovite cooling ages at the western margin of the Rhodope indicate that subsequent events failed to reset the argon system thermally in white mica in the outcropping basement of this region. The central and eastern Rhodope are characterized by white mica cooling ages of 40–35 Ma with ages gradually decreasing to ca. 15 Ma near the eastern margin of the Strymon Valley. The Eo-Oligocene ages reflect the regional exhumation of the metamorphosed units to shallow crustal levels, with corresponding temperatures below ca. 350 °C, by 40–35 Ma. The younger cooling ages are attributed to the initiation and subsequent operation of the Strymon-Thasos detachment system since ca. 30 Ma. This study provides a crucial contribution to future regional tectonic models for the Rhodope region as it recognizes an early stage of development of the Strymon-Thasos detachment system, and has constrained the regional exhumation of the Rhodope metamorphic province since 40 Ma indicating that the regionally observed amphibolite facies metamorphism had terminated by this time.     

Middle-Late Alpine thermotectonic evolution of the southern Rhodope Massif,Greece

Abstract

The transition from the Alpine tectonic assembly to the exhumation of the units in the Rhodope metamorphic province in northernmost Greece has been refined by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar laserprobe mica analyses. Preservation of pre-Alpine (~ 280 Ma and 145 Ma) muscovite cooling ages at the western margin of the Rhodope indicate that subsequent events failed to reset the argon system thermally in white mica in the outcropping basement of this region. The central and eastern Rhodope are characterized by white mica cooling ages of 40–35 Ma with ages gradually decreasing to ca. 15 Ma near the eastern margin of the Strymon Valley. The Eo-Oligocene ages reflect the regional exhumation of the metamorphosed units to shallow crustal levels, with corresponding temperatures below ca. 350 °C, by 40–35 Ma. The younger cooling ages are attributed to the initiation and subsequent operation of the Strymon-Thasos detachment system since ca. 30 Ma. This study provides a crucial contribution to future regional tectonic models for the Rhodope region as it recognizes an early stage of development of the Strymon-Thasos detachment system, and has constrained the regional exhumation of the Rhodope metamorphic province since 40 Ma indicating that the regionally observed amphibolite facies metamorphism had terminated by this time. © 2000 Editions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS     

Late Alpine evolution of the central Menderes Massif, western Turkey

The central Menderes Massif (western Turkey) is characterized by an overall dome-shaped Alpine foliation pattern and a N-NNE-trending stretching lineation. A section through the southern flank of the central submassif along the northern margin of Büyük Menderes graben has been studied. There, asymmetric non-coaxial fabrics indicate that the submassif has experienced two distinct phases of Alpine deformation: a top-to-the N-NNE contractional phase and a top-to-the S-SSW extensional event. The former fabrics are coeval with a regional prograde Barrovian-type metamorphism at greenschist to upper-amphibolite facies conditions. This event, known as the main Menderes metamorphism, is thought to be the result of internal imbrication of the Menderes Massif rocks along south-verging thrust sheets during the collision of the Sakarya continent in the north and the Anatolide-Tauride platform in the south across the Gzmir-Ankara suture during the (?)Palaeocene-Eocene. Top-to-the S-SSW fabrics, represented by a well-developed ductile shear band foliation associated with inclined and/or curved foliation, asymmetric boudins, and cataclasites, were clearly superimposed on earlier contractional fabrics. These fabrics are interpreted to be related to a low-grade (greenschist?) retrogressive metamorphism and a continuum of deformation from ductile to brittle in the footwall rocks of a south-dipping, presently low-angle normal fault that accompanied Early Miocene orogenic collapse and continental extension in western Turkey. A similar tectono-metamorphic history has been documented for the northern flank of the dome along the southern margin of the Gediz graben with top-to-the N-NNE extensional fabrics. The exhumation of the central Menderes Massif can therefore be attributed to a model of symmetric gravity collapse of the previously thickened crust in the submassif area. The central submassif is thus interpreted as a piece of ductile lower-middle crust that was exhumed along two normal-sense shear zones with opposing vergence and may be regarded as a typical symmetrical metamorphic core complex. These relationships are consistent with previous models that the Miocene exhumation of the Menderes Massif and Cycladic Massif in the Aegean Sea was a result of bivergent extension.     

Fission-track constraints on the thermal and tectonic evolution of the Apuseni Mountains (Romania)

New zircon and apatite fission-track (FT) data, including apatite thermal modelling, are combined with an extensive literature survey and reconnaissance-type structural fieldwork in the Eastern Apuseni Mountains. This leads to a better understanding of the complex structural and thermal history of a key area at the boundary between two megatectonic units in the Balkan peninsula, namely the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units. Following Late Jurassic obduction of the Transylvanian ophiolites onto a part of the Dacia Mega-Unit, that is, the Biharia nappe system, both units were buried to a minimum of 8 km during late Early Cretaceous times when these units were underthrust below the Tisza Mega-Unit consisting of the present-day Codru and Bihor nappe systems. Tisza formed the upper plate during Early Cretaceous (‘Austrian’) east-facing orogeny. Turonian to Campanian zircon FT cooling ages (95–71 Ma) from the Bihor and Codru nappe systems and the Biharia and Baia de Arie? nappes (at present the structurally lowest part of the Dacia Mega-Unit) record exhumation that immediately followed a second Cretaceous-age (i.e. Turonian) orogenic event. Thrusting during this overprinting event was NW-facing and led to the overall geometry of the present-day nappe stack in the Apuseni Mountains. Zircon FT ages, combined with thermal modelling of the apatite FT data, show relatively rapid post-tectonic cooling induced by a third shortening pulse during the latest Cretaceous (‘Laramian’ phase), followed by slower cooling across the 120°–60 °C temperature interval during latest Cretaceous to earliest Paleogene times (75–60 Ma). Cenozoic-age slow cooling (60–40 Ma) was probably related to erosional denudation postdating ‘Laramian’ large-scale updoming.     

Structures and tectonic evolution of the external zone of Alpine Corsica

This paper presents a structural analysis of the external zone of Alpine Corsica, including the autochthonous domain and overlying external nappes (Santa Lucia and Balagne nappes). Two stages of nappe emplacement are identified occurring prior to and after the deposition of the Eocene sediments which were laid down upon first generation thrust contacts but are imbricated with their composite (continental and ophiolitic) basement by second generation thrusts. Five generations of structures with regional extent have been distinguished. However, the first generation has not been recognized within the visible part of the autochthon domain.Eoalpine first generation structures, restricted to allochthonous units, and Late Eocene to Early Oligocene second generation structures were nearly contemporaneous with the two stages of thrusting. The precise significance of E-W third generation structures is poorly understood. Broadly N-S fourth generation structures resulted from Oligocene compressive tectonics (folding and local backthrusting). Finally, fifth generation structures were generated during a Miocene extensional stage.These results are partly consistent with structural features previously reported in the southern and the northern outcrops of the Schistes lustrés, i.e. the main part of the allochthonous domain. A summary of a regional tectonic evolution is thus proposed for Alpine Corsica from Eoalpine obduction to Miocene extension.     

Structure and tectonic evolution of the Pirin-Pangaion Structural Zone (Rhodope Massif,southern Bulgaria and northern Greece)

The Pirin-Pangaion Structural Zone occupies the south-western part of the Rhodope Massif. It consists of Proterozoic amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks of the Rhodopian Supergroup, and granitoids of Hercynian, Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene age. The pre-Hercynian structure of the zone is dominated by an interference pattern of three superimposed fold generations of NE-SW and NW-SE trends. These structures are cut by Hercynian granitoids, and the entire complex is affected by late Hercynian or early Alpine conical folds. The zone was overthrusted by the Ogražden and Kroussia Units (Serbo-Macedonian ‘Massif’) along the north-east vergent Mid-Cretaceous Strimon overthrust, and by the Central Rhodope Zone of the Rhodope Massif, along the south-west vergent Meso-Rhodopean Overthrust. With this thrusting event, the Pirin-Pangaion Structural Zone was brought together with the Serbo-Macedonian ‘Massif’ and the Central Rhodope Zone to form the Late Cretaceous Morava-Rhodope Zone, which acted as a ‘plateau’ along the southern edge of the Eurasian plate. Late Cretaceous granitoid magma of crustal origin intruded this zone, whereas north of it the Srednogorie volcanic island arc was the site of igneous activity with magmas originating in the upper mantle. The West Thrace Zone developed as a Palaeocene to Oligocene depression superimposed over the older basement obliquely to the southern periphery of the Rhodope Massif. In the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene, this depression represented a volcanic island arc with mantle-derived basic to intermediate magmas; contemporaneous granitoid magmas formed through crustal melting in the thickened crust of the Rhodope Massif (Pirin and Pangaion Units included). Early Miocene thrusting was most intense in the Pangaion Unit, and was followed by Late Miocene to Quaternary extension.     

Late structural evolution in an accretionary wedge: insights from the Voltri Massif (Ligurian Alps,Italy)

The Voltri Massif underwent a polyphasic tectono-metamorphic evolution that records both the Alpine and part of the Apennine deformation events. So this is a key-area to investigate the relationships between Alpine and Apennine deformation events.

This paper focus on the upper crustal deformations (UCD) that characterize the last stages of the tectonics of the Voltri Massif. In the Voltri Massif UCD are characterized by the superpositions of ductile, brittle-ductile and brittle structures that can be attributed to three main tectonic events (from D3 to D5). The oldest UCD event (D3) developed folds and reverse shear zones under ductile to brittle-ductile conditions. Main compressive NW-SE oriented regime characterized D3 event. Brittle-ductile to brittle reverse shear zones and important strike-slip/transpressive systems overprinted D3 structures. This D4 event was significant at the regional scale and occurred under main transpressive, NE-SW oriented, regime. The latest normal and transtensional brittle structures, that formed during UCD D5 event, locally reactivated the older structures.     

Rocks control the chemical composition of surface water from the high Alpine Zermatt area (Swiss Alps)

The study presents composition data of 87 surface water samples from high alpine catchments of the Zermatt area (Swiss Alps). The investigated area covers 170 km². It was found that the surface runoff acquires the dissolved solids mostly by reaction of precipitation water with the minerals of the bedrock. Total dissolved solids (TDS) vary from 6 to 268 mg L^?1. All collected water shows a clear chemical signature of the bedrock mineralogy. The contribution of atmospheric input is restricted to small amounts of ammonium nitrate and sodium chloride. NH₄ is a transient component and has not been detected in the runoff. Evaporation is not a significant mechanism for TDS increase in the Zermatt area. The chemical composition of the three main types of water can be related to the mineralogy of the dominant bedrock in the catchments. Specifically, Ca-HCO₃ (CC) waters develop from metamorphic mafic rocks and from carbonate-bearing schists. Mg-HCO₃ water originates from serpentinites and peridotites. Ca-SO₄ (CS) waters derive from continental basement rocks such as pyrite-rich granite and gneiss containing oligoclase or andesine. The collected data suggest that, together with reaction time, modal sulfide primarily controls and limits TDS of the waters by providing sulfuric acid for calcite (CC waters) and silicate (CS waters) dissolution. If calcite is present in the bedrock, its dissolution neutralizes the acid produced by sulphide weathering and buffers pH to near neutral to weakly alkaline conditions. If calcite is absent, the process produces low-pH waters in gneiss and granite catchments. The type of bedrock and its mineral assemblage can be recognized in water leaving very small catchments of some km² area. The large variety of water with a characteristic chemical signature is an impressive consequence of the richly diverse geology and the different rock inventory of the local catchments in the Zermatt area.     

Magnetic fabric evolution in ductile shear zones: examples in metagranites of the Aar Massif (Swiss Central Alps)

The Aar Massif forms part of the polycyclic basement of the External Crystalline Massifs in central Switzerland. Strong heterogeneous Alpine deformation produced a network of broad, anastomosing shear zones, with deformation strongly localized in mylonitic domains. This study investigates the combined effects of high‐strain deformation and synkinematic metamorphism on magnetic fabric evolution in Tertiary shear zones of the Aar granite and Grimsel granodiorite. In transects across several mesoscale shear zones with large strain gradients, magnetic fabric orientations are in excellent agreement with principal strain orientations determined from outcrop fabrics and strain markers. However, the magnitude and shape of the magnetic anisotropy do not change systematically with increasing finite strain, likely as a result of recrystallization and metamorphism. The overall pattern of steeply dipping fabrics is consistent with the main shortening stage of regional Alpine kinematics, while some mylonite structures reflect a local component of dextral shearing.     

The Alpine geodynamic evolution of Penninic nappes in the eastern Central Alps

The eastern Central Alps consist of several Pennine nappes with different tectonometamorphic histories. The tectonically uppermost units (oceanic Avers Bündnerschiefer, continental Suretta and Tambo nappes, oceanic Vals Bündnerschiefer) show Cretaceous/early Tertiary W-directed thrusting with associated blueschist facies metamorphism related to subduction of the Pennine units beneath the Austroalpine continental crust. This event caused eclogite facies metamorphism in the underlying continental Adula nappe. The gross effect was crustal thickening. The tectonically lower, continental Simano nappe is devoid of any imprint from this event. In the course of continent-continent collision, high- T metamorphism and N-directed movements occurred. Both affected the whole nappe pile more or less continuously from amphibolite to greenschist facies conditions. Crustal thinning commenced during the regional temperature peak. A final phase is related to differential uplift under retrograde P–T conditions. Further thinning of the crust was accommodated by E- to NE-directed extensional deformation.     

Geochemistry of ophiolites from the Chamrousse complex (Belledonne Massif,Alps)

The ophiolite complex of Chamrousse (Belledonne Massif, Alps), consists of mafic to ultramafic cumulates and non-cumulates metamorphosed to amphibolite facies grade. The non-cumulitic rocks are similar in chemical composition to recent ocean-floor olivine tholeiites (both N-type and enriched P-type). The distribution of lithophile elements shows that the non-cumulitic rocks represent several magmas of different parentage. The character of the magmas varies according to the time of emplacement.Geological and geochemical data suggest that the Chamrousse complex was formed at a spreading oceanic ridge. The dynamic partial melting of an upper mantle diapir generated tholeiitic melt which decreased in amount and in REE contents. The first melt, enriched in light REE, was generated along the axis of the ridge while the second batch of melt, of lesser quantity and slightly depleted in light REE, was emplaced on the flank of the ridge. The third melt formed cross-cutting dikes with REE abundances typical of N-type (strongly light REE depleted) mid-ocean ridge basalts.