华南寒武纪碳酸盐岩中最早腕足动物的辐射、发育与分布

腕足动物是寒武纪冠轮动物分支的重要类群,在寒武纪大爆发期间海洋底栖动物群落结构构建中发挥着重要作用。研究表明华南最早的腕足动物出现在寒武系第二统。通过大量酸蚀处理和系统分析,发现华南寒武纪第二世碳酸盐岩相中赋存的腕足动物可分为8属12种和3个未定属种,都属于磷酸钙质舌形贝型,揭示了寒武纪早期磷酸钙质壳腕足动物的多样性及其形态差异。通过全球对比,力求探索寒武纪最早腕足动物的起源、多样性、分布与辐射。通过个体发育研究,揭示了异时发育在乳孔贝形态多样性中发挥的重要作用,同时表明寒武纪舌形贝型腕足动物发育中普遍存在滤食型浮游幼虫和变态发育的过程。因此变态发育的浮游幼虫可能是腕足动物的祖先特征。这与现代舌形贝明显不同,现代舌形贝的浮游幼虫为次级幼虫,演变为直接发育。此外,对比全球不同大陆腕足动物的首现,认为舌形贝型亚门腕足动物可能在寒武纪第二世初起源于东冈瓦纳与华南板块,随后开始向全球扩散。对寒武纪早期腕足动物多样性、个体发育与生物地层的深入研究,有助于增进对关键动物门类的早期起源与系统演化的认识,同时也将推动全球和区域寒武纪生物地层的划分与对比。     

A New Platy‐armored Worm from the Early Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstätte,South China

Abstract The Lower Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstätte provides a good window to explore the origin and radiation of early bilaterians. Here we describe a netted sclerite‐bearing worm Tabelliscolex hexagonus gen. et sp. nov., and tentatively assign it to palaeoscolecidans of priapulids. The cuticle of the animal is covered with two kinds of platy sclerites which are constructed by hexagonally arranged tubercles. Similar structures of the sclerites can be seen on some Cambrian palaeoscolecidans and lobopods, so, this new species is critical for understanding the relationships between lobopods and palaeoscolecidans.     

澄江动物群的核心价值:动物界成型和人类基础器官诞生

澄江动物群以富含多门类精美软躯体构造化石享誉学界,是寒武纪大爆发主幕的见证者;它亲眼目睹了地球动物树上几乎所有主要门类祖先的首次大聚会。对该动物群30多年的大规模调查研究大体上可以划分为3个阶段。始自1984年的第一个10年(1984—1994年),早期动物树上的基础动物亚界和原口动物亚界的大量门类被发现,然而对后口动物亚界全然无知。第二个10年研究(1995—2005年),基础动物亚界和原口动物亚界中的更多门类被发现;而最重要的进展,是西北大学团队主导的早期后口动物大发现使后口动物亚界的基本框架被构建,由此地球三分动物树首次成型。第三个10年及其以后时期(2005年之后),3个动物亚界中进一步添加了一些新的门类认知;综合20世纪40年代以来对埃迪卡拉生物群、寒武纪第一世和第二世的珍稀动物群研究成果,学界开始思考三分动物树分步成型与多幕式寒武纪大爆发事件的内在关联,提出了三幕式寒武纪大爆发新假说。澄江动物群研究具有多方面的科学价值,包括动物群结构研究,生态环境研究等,然其核心学术价值主要集中在如下两个方面:(1)作为寒武纪大爆发的主幕见证者,澄江动物群首次创建了地球上三分动物树的完整谱系框架。三幕式寒武纪大爆发假说揭示了地球上动物门类由低等到高等、分阶段爆发创造的本质内涵,即历时约0.4亿年的三幕式寒武纪大爆发与动物树阶段性快速成型的内在耦合性。第一幕发生于埃迪卡拉纪晚期,它诞生了众多基础动物亚界门类(包括大量绝灭门类),也可能出现了少量原口动物的先驱分子;第二幕发生于寒武纪的第一世,除了延续基础动物门类的繁盛外,更创生了原口动物亚界里的主要门类(包括蜕皮类和触手担轮类);第三幕发生于寒武纪第二世(以澄江动物群为代表),不仅延续了基础动物和原口动物门类的兴盛,更重要的是诞生了后口动物亚界里的所有门类。至此,整个三分动物树的框架成型,寒武纪大爆发创新事件宣告基本结束。文章还对几个重要动物类群的生物学属性进行了评述。第一鱼昆明鱼目是已知唯一的最古老脊椎动物,而云南虫、海口虫既不是脊椎动物(即高等脊索动物),也不属于低等脊索动物,而是一类特殊的低等后口动物;长江海鞘是可信的始祖尾索动物,它支持了经典的尾索动物起源假说;古虫动物门首创鳃裂构造,对后口动物亚界的起源探索提供了关键信息。(2)澄江动物群具有深刻的人文哲学意义,所发现的古虫动物门创造的“第一鳃裂”,昆明鱼目创造的“第一头脑”“第一脊椎”“第一心脏”,为达尔文在《人类的由来》中关于人类的主要基础器官起源悬案的破解提供了关键证据。澄江动物群承上启下,其各种形态解剖学信息对解读埃迪卡拉生物群以及寒武纪相关化石库中绝大多数生物类型都具有重要的参考价值。     

Kaili Biota: A Taphonomic Window on Diversification of Metazoans from the Basal Middle Cambrian: Guizhou, China

1 Introduction The Burgess Shale Biota was discovered in the Cambrian strata of western Canada by American paleontologist C. D. Walcott in 1909 (Walcott, 1911). The fauna contains more than 140 metazoan genera (Robison, 1991, Briggs et al., 1994), with a preservational range from hard skeletal parts, non-mineralized remains and internal soft-tissue and soft-body remains. Following that discovery up to 40 similar taphonomic locations have been found globally in Lower and Middle Cambrian …     

我国早期生命进化研究的进展和展望

概述了中国在晚前寒武纪——寒武纪生物化石群研究多方面(尤其是大化石)的主要成就。其中,近年发现的震旦纪陡山沱期化石生物(包括庙河生物群和蓝田植物群),对植物界的进化说来是个重要阶段;早寒武世澄江生物群(包括软躯体生物和软部保存的带骨骼生物)早于国外著名的布吉斯页岩生物群,逼近了带骨骼动物最初的爆发式辐射期。这些珍稀化石的研究将促进对早期生物进化历程的重新认识。这个研究领域有无可限量的前景。     

Pediculate Brachiopod Diandongia pista from the Lower Cambrian of South China

The Chengjiang Lagerstatte has been celebrated for prolific soft-bodied fossils. Based on specimens recently excavated in the Chengjiang Lagerstatte by the Early Life Institute, Northwest University, Diandongia pista Rong, 1974, is directly revealed to be a pediculate brachiopod, assigned to the Family Botsfordiidae, as is further confirmed by the exceptionally preserved vascular system including dorsal and ventral mantle canals. These specimens described herein exhibit some peculiarities, notably the extremely thin and long pedicles, which suggest that Diandongia is epifaunal rather than burrowing brachiopod. A study of this group of animals indicates that they may be vital to understand the relationship between the lingulids and the remaining brachiopods, and the character evolution of the early Cambrian brachiopods.     

A New Platy-armored Worm from the Early Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstatte, South China

The Lower Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstatte provides a good window to explore the origin and radiation of early bilaterians. Here we describe a netted sclerite-bearing worm Tabelliscolex hexagonus gen. et sp. nov., and tentatively assign it to palaeoscolecidans of priapulids. The cuticle of the animal is covered with two kinds of platy sclerites which are constructed by hexagonally arranged tubercles. Similar structures of the sclerites can be seen on some Cambrian palaeoscolecidans and lobopods, so, this new species is critical for understanding the relationships between lobopods and palaeoscolecidans.     

Cambrian explosion: Birth of tree of animals

Excluding the sponges the Kingdom Animalia is usually divided into three subkingdoms: Diploblasta, Protostomia and Deuterostomia. The Cambrian Explosion consists of three major episodes, two of which were in the early Early Cambrian (one represented by the small skeletal fossils “SSFs” at the base of the Cambrian and the other represented by the succeeding Chengjiang faunas “CFs”), and the other episode as their prelude took place in the “Eocambrian” (i.e. the latest Precambrian), represented by the Ediacaran faunas. This unique Big Bang of life has been recognized as giving birth to the entire morphological Tree Of Animals (or metazoans), in short the TOA. Its “seed” in the deep Precambrian, represented by some sort of protist from which the complete TOA must have grown, remains unknown paleontologically. However, the fossil evidence suggests that the three major episodes of the Cambrian Explosion are responsible for the earliest radiations of the three subkingdoms of animals respectively. While the observed Ediacaran fauna might constitute only a small part of the whole Ediacaran biota, our evidence supports that it was dominated by diploblasts (the “trunk” of the TOA) with only a few possible stem-group triploblasts. The Early Cambrian in turn in two phases explosively yielded almost all the major triploblastic crown-branches (Bilateria: the huge “crown” of the TOA), which include the other two subkingdoms: first the extremely diverse protostomes in the Meishucunian Age and then followed by a nearly entire lineage of early deuterostomes from the Chengjiang, including even its most derived member – the earliest true vertebrates. Among the four most significant milestones of morphological origins and radiations in animal history, the first one (i.e. appearance of metazoans) took place in the Ediacaran Period or earlier times, and the other three can be seen in the windows available from the Chengjiang and the Meishucunian fossil assemblages. The newly discovered extinct Phylum Vetulicolia, which has primitively segmented body with simple gill slits in its anterior division, most probably represents one of the roots of the deuterostome subkingdom. Showing a mosaic of basic features possessed in both the bilateral vetulicolians and some primitive echinoderms, the soft-bodied vetulocystids are best regarded as one of the roots of the extant pentamerous echinoderms. Standing on the “top” of the deuterostome super-branch in the early Cambrian TOA are the “the first fish” Myllokunmingia and Haikouichthys, which bear paired eyes and salient proto-vertebrae. These animals represent the real root of the remainder of the vertebrates or craniates. On the contrary, yunnanozoans, including Yunnanozoon and Haikouella, possess neither eyes nor unequivocal vertebrae, and may have nothing to do with the craniates, let alone the vertebrates. Those enigmatic creatures share a similar body-plan with vetulicolians and should be treated as a side-branch within the lower deuterostomes.     

寒武纪大爆发与动物树的成型

由“真动物”构成的动物界（不包括海绵）通常被划分为双胚层动物、原口动物和后口动物3个亚界。寒武纪大爆发经历了爆发的前奏—序幕—主幕3个阶段,其中后两个阶段处于早寒武世初期（依次以小壳化石的首次辐射和澄江动物群爆发为代表）,另一个则发生在“寒武前夜”（即前寒武纪末期）,以伊迪卡拉生物群为代表。这次独特的三幕式大爆发分步完成了动物形态演化谱系树（简写为TOA）的成型。已有化石证据显示,动物树的3大主体或3个亚界的起源及其早期辐射分别发生于寒武纪大爆发这3个主要阶段。澄江化石库中发现的早期后口动物亚界涵盖了该亚界中所有6大分支（棘皮类、半索类、头索类、尾索类、脊椎类和绝灭了的古虫类）的原始类群,澄江动物群时代标志着寒武纪大爆发的顶峰,完成了动物树框架的成型,从而宣告了寒武纪大爆发的基本终结。其学术重要性超越了中寒武世的布尔吉斯页岩,因为前者位于动物树形成的“源头”,而后者仅代表此后的“一段流程”。在动物演化历史上4个最具转折意义的重大创新事件（即多细胞动物起源、两侧对称动物起源、后口动物起源和脊椎动物起源）中,第一个发生在伊迪卡拉纪甚至更早的时期,其余3个则可通过梅树村化石群和澄江化石群观察到其完成的主体过程。已灭绝的古虫动物门,是初具鳃裂构造的原始分节动物,作为由原口动物向后口动物过渡的一个珍稀“缺环”,很可能代表着后口动物亚界的一个根。古囊类兼有两侧对称的古虫类和一些原始棘皮动物的镶嵌体征,最可能代表棘皮动物的一个根。在早寒武世动物演化谱系中,后口动物的＂顶端类群＂的代表是被誉为“第一鱼”的昆明鱼目,目前已知包括昆明鱼、海口鱼和钟健鱼,它们具对眼、脊索与串珠状脊椎软骨共存的原始脊椎,?     

华南寒武纪早期刺胞动物演化框架

刺胞动物是华南寒武纪早期海洋生态系统的重要组成部分,针对这类化石的研究有助于深入了解寒武纪多幕式爆发事件。本文主要根据寒武纪早期扬子板块陕南宽川铺生物群、湖北岩家河生物群以及澄江生物群产出的刺胞动物,探讨刺胞动物在寒武纪早期的演化框架,取得了以下初步认识。截至目前,所发现的寒武纪早期刺胞动物绝大多数都属于水母超纲,珊瑚纲的化石记录在寒武系幸运阶、第二阶保存较为罕见。其中寒武系幸运阶刺胞动物的化石记录全部属于底栖类型,体型小,且具有多种类型的身体辐射对称形式,绝大多数类型可以确定属于直接发育。第二阶刺胞动物仍以底栖固着类型为主,体形增大,仅见两、四辐射对称形式;而寒武系第三阶刺胞动物仍有底栖固着类型,但游泳的水母开始出现,体型增大明显,代表水母冠群的出现,以及世代交替的复杂生命周期的正式建立。从幸运阶到第三阶刺胞动物体型明显增大,可能与海水氧气含量增加有关。在寒武纪大爆发的背景下,刺胞动物的分异度和丰度在寒武系幸运阶就已经达到顶峰,然后在第二阶、第三阶开始衰减,这种变化可能与两侧对称动物辐射演化有关。华南刺胞动物的化石记录表明,寒武纪大爆发并非纯粹的一幕式爆发,其中充斥着一系列生物群的替代甚至灭绝事件。     

高δ34S 值重晶石矿床的成因解释

中国下寒武统黑色岩系中的层状重晶石矿床主要分布在江南与秦岭地区(Wang和Li,1991)。它们具有相似的地质特征:围岩为暗色硅岩与黑色页岩,富含有机质与黄铁矿。与重晶石相伴生的还有铀和钒。秦岭地区重晶石矿层一般靠近震旦一寒武纪界线,而江南地区重晶石层位由西南向东北逐渐增高(Wang和Li,1991)。绩溪重晶石矿床位于江南地区安徽省绩溪县境内。矿层底部为含有机质较高的硅岩与黑色页岩。     

Tylotites petiolaris吻部构造的发现

早寒武世澄江动物群提供了探索早期翻吻动物辐射的一个绝佳的窗口。澄江动物群翻吻动物包括8科10属10种，其中罗惠麟等(1999)依据仅有的一块不完整的标本建立Tylotites petiolaris，并将其归入叶足动物。2002年西北大学早期生命研究所野外工作组在尖山剖面采集到两块完整的具有吻部的标本，本文籍此对该属进行了进一步完善和补充，特别是吻部和躯干表面的特征，从而说明T．petiolaris为翻吻动物。因为与澄江动物群中其他翻吻动物形态有较大差异，据此建立瘤节虫科，新科Tylotitidae fam.nov.。描述如下：虫体较长，呈圆管状，长可达100mm，宽2～4mm。身体基本可以分吻部和躯干部两部分。吻部与Cricocosmia特别相似，为典型的三段式构造，从下到上可依次分为Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ段，Ⅰ段与躯干前端连接，直径同于躯干，表面有10列纵向的略为弯曲的小刺(图版Ⅰ，图1a，1b；插图1)。最前端吻刺最为粗壮，向后的吻刺逐渐变小。Ⅱ段位于Ⅰ段之前，向前略微收缩，光滑无刺。Ⅲ段位于吻部顶端，可进一步分为A、B两部分：A段直径后端大于Ⅱ段，表面密布斜列排列的小刺，从后向前，小刺变大；B段光滑无饰，直径小于A段。Ⅲ段可强烈自由弯曲(图版Ⅰ，图1a，1d)。颈部长约5mm，表面光滑无饰，直径略小于躯干。躯干表面具56～58个环脊，52排粗刺，最前面第4～6个环脊表面无刺，环脊之间为环沟。躯干由前向后直径逐渐增加，在中后部增至最大，然后虫体直径基本上一致。躯干刺成行成列排列。环状分布的躯干刺随着环脊与环沟落差的变化而改变，到躯干后部逐渐减小。每一个环脊之上有12个粗刺，腹刺长度小于背刺。有些躯干刺的轴部显示较强的黄铁矿化，表明其可能为中空结构(图版Ⅰ，图1c)，可能有体腔伸入，躯干末端具有一对尾刺，躯干整体弯曲成6字形(图版Ⅰ，图1a，1b)。肠管从吻部一直延伸到躯干末端。肠道位于一个空闻的体腔内，Ⅰ段表面宽约1mm的黑色区域可能为胃，肛门位于躯干末端的腹面(图版Ⅰ，图1b)。T．petiolaris很可能表栖生活于海底底面上。因为体表长刺具有很强的防御作用，腹刺在运动过程中可以抓牢沉积物，所以，很可能通过背腹波动在海底底面作蠕形运动，也不排除蜷曲一解蜷的运动方式。吻部的主要功能可能为捕食。几条T．petiolaris个体相互盘绕(图版Ⅰ，图2)，很可能与其两性交配有关。     

A New Diverse Macrofossil Lagerst?tte from the Uppermost Ediacaran of Southwestern China

A new macrofossil Lagerstatte was discovered from the uppermost Ediacaran Jiucheng Member at Jinning and Jiangchuan of the eastern Yunnan, yielding numerous diverse well-preserved thallophyte macrofossils. These include the previously-known representatives of vendobionts, Vendotaenia and Tyrasotaenia, and the biggish multicellular benthos such as Chuaria-like and Tawuia- like fossiis, as well as Longfengshaniaceaens with diverse holdfast structures. There are still some other problematic macrofossils with peculiar configurations as well as uncertain relatives. The distinct dominance of the giant, unbranching thallophytes occasionally with holdfast structures distinguishes this assemblage from the other Ediacaran macrofossil Lagerstattes in the Doushantuo Formation at Miaohe, Wenghui and Lantian, and the contemporary assemblage in the Shibantan Member of Dengying Formation, Yangtze Gorges area. This paper outlines the characteristics of some of the multicellular macrofossils from the Jiucheng Member at Jiangchuan. They include some macrofossils with different types of holdfast structure, larger Chuaria-like and Tawuia-like morphology and questionable affinities as well. The discovery of greater diverse macrofossil assemblages from the Jiucheng Member of eastern Yunnan has further indicated that an important diversification and evolutionary radiation of metaphytes took place in the latest Ediacaran time. This radiation of largescale, benthic metaphyte along with phytoplankton was likely important contributors to the early Cambrian explosion of metazoans.     

澄江生物群分子在贵州遵义牛蹄塘组发现

澄江生物群是认识寒武纪生命大爆发的重要窗口,它的分布范围一直仅限于滇东地区,员近在贵州遵义松林牛蹄塘组底部页岩中发现有Naronia,Archotuba Conoidalis,Isaxys,Perpicaris,Lingulepis,Tsunyidiscus,Scenella,水母状化石(medusiform fossil),海绵动物化石Leptomitus,类似半索动物秆壁虫Rhabdopleura化石,软舌螺类Hyolithids,宏观藻类和疑源类化石Zunyiphyton perelegans Yang et Zhao,1999,Yuknessia sp.,Longenema Ding,1996,Sphaerocongregus variabilis等。其中有一部分是属于澄江生物群分子,这是云南省外澄江生物群分子的新发现。由于生物群之下40m处还产大量海绵动物、高肌虫和藻类化石等组成的松林生物群,其上又有下寒武统明心寺组古杯动物群,因此,这一生物群的发现对研究早寒武世生物的演化也具有一定的科学意义,同时,对澄江生物群的古生态学研究也具有重要意义。     

安徽南部下扬子地区寒武系露头层序地层初步研究

露头层序地层研究表明，安徽下杨子地区寒武纪可识别出两个Ⅰ类层序及三个Ⅱ类层序，早寒武世的三个Ⅱ类层序由于同沉积断裂影响陆架边缘体系域不甚发育；中、晚寒武世的两个Ⅰ类层序由低水位体系域、海侵体系域及高水位体系域构成。由沉积体系域演化作出的海平面变化曲线不同于Ｖａｉｌ的寒武纪全球海平面变化Ⅱ级旋回，表明了皖南下扬子海盆的海平面升降受扬子板块、华夏板块的影响远大于全球海平面变化幅度。     

Sedentary habits of anthozoa-like animals in the Chengjiang Lagerstätte: Adaptive strategies for Phanerozoic-style soft substrates

Substrates have perpetually played a crucial role in shaping the morphology of animal bodies, particularly the sedentary apparatus of benthic suspension feeders. In-situ preservation of sedentary forms from Cambrian Lagerstätten, especially the Lower Cambrian Chengjiang Lagerstätte, Yunnan Province, southwestern China, provides a unique opportunity for studying ancient interactions between the benthos and their substrates. The sedentary apparatuses of anthozoa-like animals Xianguangia sinica Chen & Erdtmann, 1991, Archotuba conoidalis Hou et al., 1999 and Archisaccophyllia kunmingensis Hou et al., 2005 from the Chengjiang Lagerstätte are investigated in their sedimentary context. X. sinica bears a cylindrical, rigid column and a basal, rounded, cuticularized attachment disc that partially attached into the soft muddy substrate; A. kunmingensis has a prominent, flexible pedal-shaped disc that attached directly to the substrate by expanding its disc surface area; whereas A. conoidalis has a unique, posterior-tapering tube and probably might have secreted mucus to firmly attach to the ‘sclerotized’ substrates. These three sedentary taxa employed different adaptive strategies, i.e., the ‘iceberg’, the ‘snowshoe’ and one newly defined but later widespread in Phanerozoic period, the ‘anchoring-nail’, to cope with the soft substrates. Furthermore, the anchoring-nail mode, sclerite-sticking behavior represented by Archotuba is a Phanerozoic innovative strategy in response to the appearance of pelagic larvae and small shelly fossils, especially to the first widespread biomineralization event at the beginning of the Cambrian, whereas the other two modes have already developed for about 90 Ma from the Ediacaran.     

The Caesura: remarks on Wittgenstein’s interruption of theory, or, why practices elude explanation

This paper aims to bring the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein into contact with the growing interest and concerns over the status of practice, performance and non-representational ‘theory’ within human geography. Drawing predominantly on Wittgenstein’s later work, the aim is to use Wittgenstein’s comments to illuminate how certain presuppositions and idealisations over the nature of understanding and meaning are or have been built into our (social scientific) modes and methods of explanation. Thus Wittgenstein’s work is used as a diagnosis––a diagnosis of how the modus operandi of giving an explanation can, and often does, prevent us from acknowledging the practical and the performative, from witnessing the taking-place of meaning and understanding. The paper carries out this task by focusing first on Wittgenstein’s critique of the role of ‘rules’ and ‘rule-following’ in the construction of social scientific accounts and secondly, through a consideration of the implications of Wittgenstein’s ‘scenic’ style of writing through which he attempts to deconstruct the epistemo-methodological idealisations and representationalist desires of social analysis. The claim here is not that Wittgenstein’s work provides the solution to the problematics which confront us in considering the status (or otherwise) of practice, but rather that his work may provide us with other ways of going-on, ones more sensitive to the eventful, creative, excessive and distinctly uncertain realms of action.     

New insights into the origin and migration of brines in deep Devonian aquifers, Alberta, Canada

Analysis of hydraulic heads and chemical compositions of Devonian formation waters in the west central part of the Alberta Basin, Canada, characterizes the origin of formation waters and migration of brines. The Devonian succession in the study area lies 2000–5000 m below the ground surface, and has an approximate total thickness of 1000 m and an average slope of 15 m/km. Four Devonian aquifers are present in the study area, which form two aquifer systems [i.e., a Middle–Upper Devonian aquifer system (MUDAS) consisting of the Elk Point and Woodbend–Beaverhill Lake aquifers, and an Upper Devonian aquifer system (UDAS) consisting of the Winterburn and Wabamun aquifers]. The Ireton is an effective aquitard between these two systems in the eastern parts of the study area. The entire Devonian succession is confined below by efficient aquitards of the underlying Cambrian shales and/or the Precambrian basement, and above by overlying Carboniferous shales of the Exshaw and Lower Banff Formations.The formation water chemistry shows that the Devonian succession contains two distinct brine types: a ‘heavy brine,’ located updip, defined approximately by TDS >200 g/l, and a ‘light brine’ with TDS <200 g/l. Hydraulic head distributions suggest that, presently, the ‘light brine’ attempts to flow updip, thereby pushing the ‘heavy brine’ ahead. The interface between the two brines is lobate and forms large-scale tongues that are due to channeled flow along high-permeability pathways. Geological and hydrogeochemical data suggest that the following processes determined the present composition of the ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ brines: original seawater, evaporation beyond gypsum but below halite saturation, dolomitization, clay dehydration, gypsum dewatering, thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), and halite dissolution. The influx of meteoric (from the south) and metamorphic (from the west) waters can be recognized only in the ‘light brine.’ Albitization can be unequivocally identified only in the ‘heavy brine.’ The ‘heavy brine’ may be residual Middle Devonian evaporitic brine from the Williston Basin or the Elk Point Basin, or it may have originated from partial dissolution of thick, laterally extensive Middle Devonian evaporite deposits to the east of the study area. The ‘light brine’ most probably originated from dilution of ‘heavy brine’ in post-Laramide times.     

Early Cambrian palaeogeography and the probable Iberia–Siberia connection

The end of the Proterozoic–beginning of the Cambrian is marked by some of the most dramatic events in the history of Earth. The fall of the Ediacaran biota, followed by the Cambrian Explosion of skeletonised bilaterians, a pronounced shift in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry and rapid climatic change from ‘snowball earth’ to ‘greenhouse’ conditions all happened within a rather geologically short period of time. These events took place against a background of the rearrangement of the prevailing supercontinent; some authors view this as a sequence of individual supercontinents such as Mesoproterozoic Midgardia, Neoproterozoic Rodinia and Early Cambrian Pannotia. Assembled in the Mesoproterozoic, this supercontinent appears to have existed through the Neoproterozoic into the Early Cambrian with periodic changes in configuration. The final rearrangement took place during the Precambrian–Cambrian transition with the Cadomian and related phases of the Pan-African orogeny. The distribution of Early Cambrian molluscs and other small shelly fossils (SSF) across all continents indicates a close geographic proximity of all major cratonic basins that is consistent with the continued existence of the supercontinent at that time. Subsequently, Rodinia experienced breakup that led to the amalgamation of Gondwana, separation of Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and some small terranes and the emergence of oceanic basins between them. Spreading oceanic basins caused a gradual geographic isolation of the faunal assemblages that were united during the Vendian–Early Cambrian.