Preliminary investigations of the tsunami hazard of Kick'em Jenny submarine volcano

Kick'em Jenny is a submarine volcano situated 9 kilometres north of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. A preliminary study suggests that the volcano is a prime candidate for tsunamigenic eruptions on a potentially hazardous scale, possibly affecting the whole of the Eastern Caribbean region. The uniqueness of individual volcanic eruptions means that attempts to generalise tsunamigenic mechanisms are extremely tentative. However, the theory of underwater explosion generated water waves is applicable to submarine volcanoes to model explosive eruptions. Using this theory, initial maximum ocean surface displacements are calculated for Kick'em Jenny hydroeruptions, corresponding to various event magnitudes (up to a worst-case scenario eruption on the scale of Krakatau, 1883). Wave propagation theories are then applied to the resulting tsunami wave dispersion, before beach shoaling equations are used to estimate the maximum tsunami run-up at adjacent coastal areas. Maps of the region have been prepared showing the paths of the wave-fronts (ray-tracing), travel times and maximum wave run-up amplitudes along coastlines. Finally, an attempt is made to assess how great a hazard the volcano represents, by considering the probability of each magnitude event occurring.     

Characterisation of a Pleistocene debris-avalanche deposit in the Tenteniguada Basin,Gran Canaria Island,Spain

We studied a large debris-avalanche deposit of Pleistocene age in the Tenteniguada Basin, Gran Canaria Island, Spain. This deposit, which is well preserved because it is mostly covered by basanite lava flows, has distinctive matrix and block facies, hummocky topography and internal structures typical of debris avalanches. However, neither syneruptive lavas nor some characteristic features of volcanic debris-avalanche deposits, such as a stratovolcano edifice or a horseshoe-shaped crater, are present. The occurrence of internal features characteristic of volcanic avalanche deposits could be attributed to the volcanic materials involved in the movement rather than to the triggering of the avalanche during a volcanic eruption. The conditioning factors are shown to be associated with specific structural and hydrological conditions, such as the presence of old volcanic domes, strength reduction of the rocks, effective stress decrease, active gully erosion and water table rise during Pleistocene humid episodes. We finally suggest that the possible triggering factor of the avalanche was a neighbouring volcanic or tectonic earthquake.     

Estimation of underwater eruption energy based on tsunami wave data

Empirical relations between tsunami parameters and underwater eruption energy have been improved, making use of Le Mehaute's theory of explosion-generated water waves. Formulae can be used to estimate underwater eruption characteristics by tsunami wave data. Estimates of energy for some past event have been obtained, in particular, for multiple eruptions of the 1952–1953 Myojinsho volcano, to be E 10¹⁵ – 10¹⁶ J.     

中国东部全新世火山的镭-钍同位素年代学

活火山是指1万年来有过喷发历史的全新世火山。火山的高分辨年代学对火山灾害评估和火山分类具有重要意义。对于缺乏历史记载的全新世火山,直接对火山岩进行同位素定年很困难。本文利用具有高时间分辨率的镭-钍-铀非平衡确定中国东部年轻火山的年龄。根据镭-钍-铀同位素,海南岛的马鞍岭和雷虎岭是全新世火山(马鞍岭:4.3ka;雷虎岭:4.7ka);镜泊湖火山(4.9ka)也是全新世火山;龙岗火山存在晚更新世和全新世活动(7.0ka,15.0ka);大兴安岭阿尔山和诺敏河Ra/Th非平衡消失但~(230)Th/~(238)U非平衡显著,属于晚更新世喷发(阿尔山:63ka;诺敏河:71ka)。海南岛的马鞍岭火山、雷虎岭火山和东北地区的龙岗火山、镜泊湖火山,是4座活火山。至于东北地区的阿尔山和诺敏河火山是否是活火山,有待测试更多样品的Ra/Th同位素。五大连池老黑山和火烧山有历史喷发记录,这与它们都存在显著Ra/Th非平衡一致。五大连池老黑山和火烧山的岩浆滞留年龄分别小于4.2ka和3.2ka,岩浆上升速率 18～23m/y。     

Estimation of tsunami hazard from volcanic activity — Suggested methodology with Augustine volcano,Alaska as an example

A general approach for the estimation of tsunami height and hazard in the vicinity of active volcanoes has been developed. An empirical relationship has been developed to estimate the height of the tsunami generated for an eruption of a given size. This relationship can be used to estimate the tsunami hazard based on the frequency of eruptive activity of a particular volcano. This technique is then applied to the estimation of tsunami hazard from the eruption of the Augustine volcano in Alaska. Modification of this approach to account for a less than satisfactory data base and differing volcanic characteristics is also discussed with the case of the Augustine volcano as an example. This approach can be used elsewhere with only slight modifications and, for the first time, provides a technique to estimate tsunami hazard from volcanic activity, similar to a well-established approach for the estimation of tsunami hazard from earthquake activity.     

Deep-sea volcaniclastic sedimentary systems: an example from La Fournaise volcano, Réunion Island, Indian Ocean

A volcaniclastic sedimentary fan extending to water depths of 4000 m is characterized using gravity cores, camera surveys, high-resolution sonar images, seismic records and bathymetry from the submarine portion of La Fournaise volcano, Réunion Island, a basaltic shield volcano in the SW Indian Ocean. Three main areas are identified from the study: (1) the proximal fan extending from 500 m water depth down to 2000 m water depth; (2) the outer fan extending from 2000 m water depth down to 3600 m water depth; (3) the basin extending beyond 3600 m water depth. Within these three main areas, seven distinct submarine environments are defined: the proximal fan is characterized by volcanic basement outcrops, sedimentary slides, deep-water deltas, debris-avalanche deposits, and eroded floor in the valley outlets; the outer fan is characterized by a discontinuous fine-grained sedimentary cover overlying coarse-grained turbidites or undifferentiated volcanic basement; the basin is characterized by hemipelagic muds and fine-grained turbidites interbedded with sandy and gravelly turbidite lobes. The evolution of the deep-sea volcaniclastic fan is strongly influenced by sector collapses, such as the one which occurred 0·0042 Ma ago. This collapse produced a minimum of 6 km³ of debris-avalanche deposit in the proximal area. The feeding regime of the deep-sea fan is ‘alluvial dominated’ before the occurrence of any sector collapse and ‘lava-dominated’ after the occurrence of a sector collapse. The main deep-water lava-fed delta is prograding among the blocks of the debris-avalanche deposits as a result of turbidity flows occurring on the delta slope. These turbidity flows are triggered routinely by wave-action, earthquakes and accumulation of new volcanic debris on top of the deltas. Both turbidity currents triggered on the deep-water delta slope, and those triggered by debris avalanche reworked volcaniclastic material as far as 100 km from the shore line.     

Anak Krakatau — a colonization model within a colonization model?

The ppaer re-examines three suggestions previously made concerning the colonization of the Krakatau islands since the extirpating 1883 eruption that involve the more recently emergent volcanic island Anak Krakatau, which itself suffered a devastating eruption in 1952. The suggestions re-addressed in the light of recent comments by other workers are:

五大连池老黑山、火烧山火山岩屑崩落堆积的发现及其喷发历史和模式的重塑

黑龙江五大连池世界地质公园的老黑山、火烧山火山岩屑崩落(debris-avalanche)形成小丘状沉积.老黑山火山西面、东面和东南面有数十座小丘,火烧山火山北面和东北面也有数十座小丘.最大的小丘高约17m,基座直径50m以上.最远的小丘距火山2km.小丘为崩落堆积的岩块相,由巨大的崩落岩块组成.崩落岩块为灰紫色玄武质...     

Anthropogenic changes in the landscape of west Java (Indonesia) during historic times,inferred from a sediment and pollen record from Teluk Banten

Palynological and charcoal analyses of shallow marine core 98‐28 from the northern coastal area of West Java provide a regional vegetation history during the last few centuries. Reliable chronostratigraphical control is provided by ²¹⁰Pb analyses and the occurrence of the 1883 Krakatau ash/tsunami layer as a time marker. The results permit the distinction of four successive stages, reflecting increased disturbance and land clearance, with some evidence for the presence of deciduous lowland forests in the Banten area during the early Holocene. The establishment of coconut and pine plantations and the severe loss of biodiversity in the last few decennia are also echoed in the pollen record. The effect of the Krakatau eruption was insignificant compared with human impact on vegetation in the Banten area. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Genesis of secondary Mn-oxide ores in the Úrkút deposit, Hungary

The Úrküt Basin of western Hungary is well known for its early Jurassic Mn-carbonate deposit that is related genetically to Jurassic black shale formation. This carbonate deposit has undergone multistage oxidation during the Cretaceous that produced secondary Mn-oxides. Among the geochemical characteristics that distinguish the host sedimentary rocks and Mn-carbonates from the Mn-oxides is an extreme enrichment in Sr (up to 1%) without an observable independent Sr-phase. This enrichment indicates a special process of formation. The ¹⁸O values of these Mn-oxide ores fall between 1.5 and 5.5%. (VSMOW) showing a slight bimodal distribution. This isotopic variability is interpreted as a product of superposing effects of the interaction of surficial and deep-seated magmatic fluids. The ¹⁸O_MnO2 values (from 1.5 to 5.5%.), the assumed ¹⁸O_water values and formation temperatures fit well with the MnO₂-water fractionation curve based on the data of Yeh et al. (1985) and Hoefs et al. (1987).     

The Ischia debris avalanche: first clear submarine evidence in the Mediterranean of a volcanic island prehistorical collapse

Sector or flank collapse with related debris avalanches is increasingly recognized as a relatively common volcanic behaviour, in particular, for large, hot‐spot related oceanic islands. Here, we report the case of a catastrophic collapse that occurred at Ischia volcanic island in prehistorical times and was driven by the volcano‐tectonic uplift of Mt Epomeo, the major relief of the island. The collapse left a subaerial to submarine horseshoe scar on the southern flank of the island and generated a debris avalanche incorporating thousands of giant blocks dispersed as far as 50 km from the island. During the emplacement, part of the debris avalanche evolved into a debris flow covering an area of 250–300 km². This constitutes the first, clear evidence of a submarine debris avalanche in the Mediterranean Sea. The major collapse was followed, and probably also preceded, by recurrent, less catastrophic terrestrial and underwater failures. Two other undersea hummocky deposits are found north and west of the island and might tentatively be correlated to the major southern collapse. Such volcanic behaviour, previously unknown for Ischia Volcano, has likely triggered tsunami waves over the entire Bay of Naples raising the question of their impact on prehistorical/historical communities.     

Characteristics and developmental mechanisms of mud volcanoes on the southern margin of the Junggar Basin,NW China

Mud volcanoes have provided much meaningful information about the deep Earth and the recent crustal and neotectonic movements in an area for over 200 years. However, the triggering mechanisms have puzzled geologists for a long time. This study investigated the factors controlling mud volcano activity and the triggering mechanisms of mud volcano eruptions on the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, NW China. The Baiyanggou, Aiqigou and Dushanzi mud volcanoes are all located along the Dushanzi Anticline, which belongs to the third anticline belt on the southern margin of the basin. The extensive, thick mudstone at depth provides a wealth of material for the formation of mud volcanoes. Simultaneously, the overpressure serves as the driving force for the eruption of the mud volcanoes. The torsional–compressional stress field created by the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates not only enhanced the abnormal formational pressure in the region but also lead to the development of extensional faults in the core of the Dushanzi Anticline, which served as the conduits for the mud volcanoes. The continuous collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates and the regional torsional–compressional stress field may largely control the cyclical activity of the mud volcanoes and serve as their primary trigger mechanism. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Indirect economic losses of drought under future projections of climate change: a case study for Spain

This study presents the results of numerical simulations of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in the Bay of Lhok Nga (northwestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia) integrating sediment erosion and deposition. We investigate the transport of sediment both by suspension and by bedload under different scenarii of long breaking dispersive waves through a series of numerical experiments. The earthquake source model used by Koshimura et al. (Coast Eng J 51:243–273, 2008) with a 25-m dislocation better reproduces the wave travel time, flow depth and inundation area than the other models tested. The model reproduces realistically the pronounced coastal retreat in the northern part of Lhok Nga Bay (retreat ranging between 50 and 150 m), where Paris et al. (Geomorphology 104:59–72, 2009) estimated a mean retreat of 80 m. There is also a good agreement between the simulated area of coastal retreat (195,400 m²) and the field observations (203,200 m²). The simulation may underestimate the volume of tsunami deposits (611,700 m³ vs. 500,000–1,000,000 m³ estimated by Paris et al. (2009). The model fully reproduces the observed thickness of tsunami deposits when considering both bedload and suspension, even if bedload transport dominates. Limitations are due to micro-scale topographic, anthropic features (which are not always represented by the DEM) and the amount of debris which may influence flow dynamics and sediment transport.     

火山信息系统建立方法研究——以长白山火山区为例

火山喷发是严重的地质灾害之一。全球各地都有火山分布 ,我国也有近千座火山。其中长白山火山、五大莲池火山和腾冲火山是我国最具潜在灾难性喷发危险的活火山。以长白山火山为例 ,阐述用建立火山信息系统的方法监测、预测、评估火山灾害 ,达到减灾、防灾的目的     

CLASSIFICATION OF PYROCLASTIC FLOWS

Pyroclastic flow is defined as the flow of high-temperature, essential, fragmental materials. This is synonymous with the nuée ardente in the broad sense. Three modes of emplacement of high-temperature, essential, solid (or liquid) materials after the ejection from the crater may be recognized: 1) Projection of fragments from the crater by explosive expansion of gas within the crater; 2) descent of fragments or liquid magma from the crater caused only by the action of gravity; and 3) swift downflow of the mixture of gas and fragments. This last is intermediate between the first two and corresponds to pyroclastic flow.

A new classification of pyroclastic flows is proposed based upon viscosity of the materials, which ls inferred from the nature of the deposit. The volume of the deposit increases as the viscosity decreases.

1) Nuée ardente in the strict sense: Represented by the nuée ardente of Mt. Pelée, Merapi, etc. The fragments are less porous, which indicates the high viscosity. The volume of the deposit is small, generally less than 0.01 km³.

2) Pyroclastic flow of the intermediate type: Represented by certain pyroclastic flows of Asama, Hakone, and Myoko volcanoes. Both viscosity and volume (0.1 - 1 km³) are intermediate between 1) and 3).

3) Pumice flow: Represented by pumice and tuff flows of all sizes, such as those of Crater Lake, Hakone, Katmai, and Aso volcanoes. Low viscosity leads -to full vesiculation into pumice. Many of them are larger in volume ( > 10 km³) than 1) and 2), and calderas of the Krakatau type are often formed after the eruption of larger pumice flows.--Auth. English summ.     

Groundmass crystallization of Mount St. Helens dacite, 1980–1986: a tool for interpreting shallow magmatic processes

The 1980–1986 eruption of Mount St. Helens volcano provides an unprecedented opportunity to observe the evolution of a silicic magma system over a short time scale. Groundmass plagioclase size measurements are coupled with measured changes in matrix glass, plagioclase and Fe–Ti oxide chemistry to document increasing groundmass crystallinity, and thus to better constrain proposed physical models of the post-May 18, 1980 magmatic reservoir. Measurements of plagioclase microlite and microphenocryst sizes demonstrate that relatively rapid growth (approximately 10^-9 cm/s) of groundmass plagioclase occurred immediately subsequent to May 18. Relatively rapid plagioclase growth continued through the end of 1980 at an average rate of 3x10^-11 cm/s; plagioclase growth rates then decreased to <1x10^-11 cm/s through 1986. Changes in groundmass crystallinity are reflected in changes in both matrix glass and plagioclase microphenocryst-rim chemistry, although the matrix glass composition appears to have remained approximately constant from 1981–1986 after a rapid compositional change from May 18 until the end of 1980. Plagioclase microphenocrysts show increasingly more complex zoning patterns with time; microphenocryst-core compositions are commonly positively correlated with crystal size. Both of these observations indicate continuous groundmass plagioclase growth through 1986. Magmatic temperatures estimated from Fe–Ti oxide pairs are approximately constant through 1981 at eruption temperatures of 930°C and at log f_O2 of -10.8; by 1985–1986 oxide temperatures decreased to 870°C. Chemical and textural changes can be explained by: (1) rapid degassing and crystallization in response to the intrusion of magma into a shallow (<4.5 km) reservoir toward the end of the May 18, 1980 eruption; (2) continued crystallization at a much reduced rate through 1986 due to slow cooling of the shallow magma reservoir. Growth rates (and consequent chemical changes) appear to decrease at the end of 1980—this is coincident with the change in eruption style from explosive eruptions, sometimes followed by dome growth, to solely extrusive (dome-building) events, and can be explained by the expected viscosity increase of both degassing and increasing crystallinity. The model of twostage crystallization of magma in a shallow reservoir is consistent with conclusions from gas studies (Casadevall et al. 1983; Gerlach and Casadevall 1986 a, b), patterns of crater deformation (Chadwkck et al. 1988) and post-1980 seismicity (Endo et al. 1990), although it does not explain the experimental data of Hill and Rutherford (1989) on the growth rate of amphibole reaction rims. Textural measurements on Mount St. Helens dacite can also be used to evaluate crystallization kinetics in silicic magmas, systems for which experimental data is almost non-existent. Plagioclase growth rates are 5–10 times slower than estimated plagioclase growth rates in basaltic systems, a result consistent with the higher viscosity of a more silicic melt. Furthermore, patterns of textural change (both average crystal size and number density) are similar to those observed during the 1984 Mauna Loa eruption by Lipman and Banks (1987), suggesting that the only modification to the crystallization behavior of plagioclase required in extrapolation from basaltic systems is a moderate decrease in rates, such that the rate of crystallization scales with the melt viscosity.     

Modeling the multi-level plumbing system of the Changbaishan caldera from geochemical,mineralogical, Sr-Nd isotopic and integrated geophysical data

Changbaishan, an intraplate volcano, is characterized by an approximately 6 km wide summit caldera and last erupted in 1903. Changbaishan experienced a period of unrest between 2002 and 2006. The activity developed in three main stages, including shield volcano(basalts), cone-construction(trachyandesites to trachytes with minor basalts), and caldera-forming stages(trachytes to comendites). This last stage is associated with one of the more energetic eruptions of the last millennium on Earth, the 946 CE, VEI 7 Millennium Eruption(ME),which emitted over 100 km3 of pyroclastics. Compared to other active calderas, the plumbing system of Changbaishan and its evolution mechanisms remain poorly constrained. Here, we merge new whole-rock,glass, mineral, isotopic, and geobarometry data with geophysical data and present a model of the plumbing system. The results show that the volcano is characterized by at least three main magma reservoirs at different depths: a basaltic reservoir at the Moho/lower crust depth, an intermediate reservoir at 10–15 km depth, and a shallower reservoir at 0.5–3 km depth. The shallower reservoir was involved in the ME eruption, which was triggered by a fresh trachytic melt entering a shallower reservoir where a comenditic magma was stored. The trachytes and comendites originate from fractional crystallization processes and minor assimilation of upper crust material, while the less evolved melts assimilate lower crust material. Syn-eruptive magma mingling occurred during the ME eruption phase. The magma reservoirs of the caldera-forming stage partly reactivate those of the cone-construction stage. The depth of the magma storage zones is controlled by the layering of the crust.The plumbing system of Changbaishan is vertically extensive, with crystal mush reservoirs renewed by the replenishment of new trachytic to trachyandesitic magma from depth. Unlike other volcanoes, evidence of a basaltic recharge is lacking. The interpretation of the signals preceding possible future eruptions should consider the multi-level nature of the Changbaishan plumbing system. A new arrival of magma may destabilize a part of or the entire system, thus triggering eruptions of different sizes and styles. The reference model proposed here for Changbaishan represents a prerequisite to properly understand periods of unrest to potentially anticipate future volcanic eruptions and to identify the mechanisms controlling the evolution of the crust below volcanoes.     

Modelling of Tsunamis Generated by Pyroclastic Flows (Ignimbrites)

Pyroclastic flows entering the sea played a major role in generating the largest tsunamiwaves, arising from the 1883 eruption of Krakatau, Indonesia, which caused a considerabledeath toll, most deaths resulting from the tsunamis. The potential exists for similar eventsto occur in Indonesia and New Zealand.Processes leading to tsunami generation by pyroclastic flows, especially those associatedwith Krakatau-type eruptions, are reviewed. The major processes include:1. Deposition at the shoreline causing a lateral displacement as the zone of depositionmoves offshore.2. Upward and lateral displacement of water caused by the propagation of a watersupported mass-flow.3. Downward and lateral displacement of water caused by the sinking of debris from a segregated flow travelling over the water surface.4. Upward displacement of a large volume of water due to the deposition of acaldera-infill ignimbrite or pyroclastic flow deposit.The pyroclastic flow is modelled as a horizontal piston forcingwater displacement. The flow behaves as a wedge of material displacingseawater horizontally and vertically as it moves outwards from the source.Individual pyroclastic flows are treated as linear features that travel alonga specific direction from the volcano, exhibiting limited lateral spreading.The event duration for the formation of a large pyroclastic flow and thedeposition of the ignimbrite is taken as 200–400 s, with flow velocitiesdependent on the volume of material erupted.For simulations it is assumed that the ignimbrite deposit is elliptical with relativelyuniform thickness and the principal axis orientated along the flow direction. Therefore the tsunami is generated by defining an elliptical source region and defining an effective displacement behaviour at each node within that region. The effective displacement is defined by a start time, a finish time and a vertical velocity. These three parameters determine when the seafloor starts to rise and how far it travels during a model time step. The result is a seafloor disturbance that propagates away from the source.The major difficulty with this approach is determination of the appropriate verticalvelocity. With a real pyroclastic flow the effective vertical velocity at any point isvery high. However the model needs to average the displacement spatially andtemporally. Accordingly we apply the model to pyroclastic flows from Mayor Island, New Zealand to examine the influence of model parameters. To further calibrate the numerical model this study is being undertaken in conjunction with physical modelling of the Krakatau 1883 eruption at the Indonesian Tsunami Research Center, BPPT, Jakarta. Historical data will also be used to refine and calibrate the pyroclastic flow model.     

长白山天池火山——多成因中央式火山

长白山天池火山属新生代多成因中央式火山,也是我国最大的一座具潜在危险的活火山。火山主体由早期玄武岩盾、中期粗面岩锥和晚期伊格尼姆岩席组成。天池火山布里尼喷发柱高度最高达25 km,柱体最大宽度为半径12～13 km。天池破火山口塌陷过程可以分为四期,分别位于造锥喷发阶段和造伊格尼姆岩喷发阶段。本文对天池火山未来可能的火山灾害类型及范围也作了初步预测。