Three-dimensional seismic modelling of crustal structure in the TESZ region based on POLONAISE''97 data

This paper reports the results of 3-D tomographic modelling of crustal structure in the Trans European Suture Zone region (TESZ) of Poland, eastern Germany and Lithuania. The data are the product of a large-scale seismic experiment POLONAISE'97, which was carried out in 1997. This experiment was designed to provide some 3-D coverage. The TESZ forms the boundary between the Precambrian crustal terranes of the East European Craton (EEC) and the younger Phanerozoic terranes to the southwest. The 3-D results generally confirm the earth models derived by earlier 2-D analyses, but also add some important details as well as a 3-D perspective on the structure. The velocity model obtained shows substantial horizontal variations of crustal structure across the study area. Seismic modelling shows low (<6.1 km/s) velocities suggesting the presence of sedimentary rocks down to a depth of about 20 km in the Polish basin. The shape of the basin in the vicinity of the profile P4 shows significant asymmetry. Three-dimensional modelling also allowed tracing of horizontal irregularities of the basin shape as well as variations of the Moho depth not only along profiles, but also between them. The slice between P2 and P4 profiles shows about 10-km variations of the Moho over a 100-km interval. The crustal thickness varies from about 30 km in SW, beneath the Palaeozoic platform, to about 42 km beneath East European Craton in NE. High seismic velocities of about 6.6 km/s were found in the depth range 2–10 km, which coincides with K trzyn anorthosite massif. The results of this 3-D seismic modelling of the POLONAISE'97 data will ultimately be supplemented by inversion of seismic data from previous experiments.     

The effect of crustal anisotropy on reflector depth and velocity determination from wide-angle seismic data: a synthetic example based on South Island, New Zealand

When deriving velocity models by forward modelling or inverting travel time arrivals from seismic refraction data, a heterogeneous but isotropic earth is usually assumed. In regions where the earth is not isotropic at the scale at which it is being sampled, the assumption of isotropy can lead to significant errors in the velocities determined for the crust and the depths calculated to reflecting boundaries. Laboratory velocity measurements on rocks collected from the Haast Schist terrane of South Island, New Zealand, show significant (up to 20%) compressional (P) wave velocity anisotropy. Field data collected parallel and perpendicular to the foliation of the Haast Schist exhibit as much as 11% P-wave velocity anisotropy. We demonstrate, using finite-difference full-wavefield modelling, the types of errors and problems that might be encountered if isotropic methods are used to create velocity models from data collected in anisotropic regions. These reflector depth errors could be as much as 10–15% for a 10-km thick layer with significant (20%) P-wave velocity anisotropy. The implications for South Island, New Zealand, where the problem is compounded by extreme orientations of highly anisotropic rocks (foliation which varies from horizontal to near vertical), are considered. Finally, we discuss how the presence of a significant subsurface anisotropic body might manifest itself in wide-angle reflection/refraction and passive seismic datasets, and suggest ways in which such datasets may be used to determine the presence and extent of such anisotropic bodies.     

The crustal structure of the Guayana Shield, Venezuela, from seismic refraction and gravity data

We present results from a seismic refraction experiment on the northern margin of the Guayana Shield performed during June 1998, along nine profiles of up to 320 km length, using the daily blasts of the Cerro Bolívar mines as energy source, as well as from gravimetric measurements. Clear Moho arrivals can be observed on the main E–W profile on the shield, whereas the profiles entering the Oriental Basin to the north are more noisy. The crustal thickness of the shield is unusually high with up to 46 km on the Archean segment in the west and 43 km on the Proterozoic segment in the east. A 20 km thick upper crust with P-wave velocities between 6.0 and 6.3 km/s can be separated from a lower crust with velocities ranging from 6.5 to 7.2 km/s. A lower crustal low velocity zone with a velocity reduction to 6.3 km/s is observed between 25 and 25 km depth. The average crustal velocity is 6.5 km/s. The changes in the Bouguer Anomaly, positive (30 mGal) in the west and negative (−20 mGal) in the east, cannot be explained by the observed seismic crustal features alone. Lateral variations in the crust or in the upper mantle must be responsible for these observations.     

Seismic velocity model of the crust and uppermost mantle around the Mirnyi kimberlite field in Siberia

We present the first detailed seismic velocity models of the crust and uppermost mantle around the Mirnyi kimberlite field in Yakutia, Siberia. We have digitized vintage seismograms that were acquired in 1981 and 1983 by use of Taiga analogue seismographs along two perpendicular seismic profiles. The 370-km long, northwest striking profile I across the kimberlite pipe was covered by 41 seismographs, which recorded seismic signals from 21 chemical shots along the line, including one off-end shot. The perpendicular, 340-km long profile II across profile I ca. 30 km to the south of the Mirnyi kimberlite field was covered by 45 seismographs, which recorded seismic signals from 22 chemical shots, including four off-end shots. Each shot involved detonation of between 1.5 and 6.0 tons of TNT, distributed in individual charges of 100–200 kg in shallow water (< 2 m deep). The data is of high quality with high signal/noise ratio to the farthest offsets. We present the results from two-dimensional ray tracing, forward modelling.Both velocity models show normal cratonic structure of the ca. 45-km-thick crust with only slight undulation of the Moho. However, relatively small seismic velocity is detected to 25-km depth in a ca. 60-km wide zone around the kimberlite pipe, surrounded by elevated velocity (> 6.3 km/s) in the upper crust. The lower crust has a relatively constant velocity of 6.8–6.9 km/s. It appears relatively unaffected by the presence of the kimberlite field. Extremely large P-wave velocity (> 8.7 km/s) of the sub-Moho mantle is interpreted along profile I, except for a 70-km wide zone with a “normal” Pn velocity of 8.1 km/s below the kimberlite. Profile II mainly shows Pn velocities of 8.0–8.2 km/s, with unusually large velocity (> 8.5 km/s) in two, ca. 100-km wide zones, at its southwestern end, one zone being close to the kimberlite field. The nature of these exceptionally large, sub-Moho mantle velocities is not yet understood. The difference in velocity in the two profile directions indicates anisotropy, but the effect of unusual rock composition, e.g. from a high concentration of garnet, cannot be excluded.     

Moho topography and lower crustal wide-angle reflectivity around the TESZ in southern Scandinavia and northeastern Europe

The Moho topography is strongly undulating in southern Scandinavia and northeastern Europe. A map of the depth to Moho shows similarities between the areas of the Teisseyre–Tornquist Zone (TTZ) in Poland and the Fennoscandian Border Zone (FBZ), which is partly coinciding with the Sorgenfrei–Tornquist Zone (STZ) in Denmark. The Moho is steeply dipping at these zones from a crustal thickness of approximately 32 km in the young Palaeozoic Platform and basin areas to approximately 45 km in the old Precambrian Platform and Baltic Shield. The Moho reflectivity (P_MP waveform) in the POLONAISE'97 refraction/wide-angle seismic data from Poland and Lithuania is variable, ranging from ‘sharp’ to strongly reverberating signals of up to 2 s duration. There is little or no lower crustal wide-angle reflectivity in the thick Precambrian Platform, whereas lower crustal reflectivity in the thin Palaeozoic Platform is strongly reverberating, suggesting that the reflective lower crust and upper mantle is a young phenomena. From stochastic reflectivity modelling, we conclude that alternating high- and low-velocity layers with average thicknesses of 50–300 m and P-wave velocity variations of ±3–4% of the background velocity can explain the lower crustal reflectivity. Sedimentary layering affects the reflectivity of deeper layers significantly and must be considered in reflectivity studies, although the reverberations from the deeper crust cannot be explained by the sedimentary layering only. The reflective lower crust and upper mantle may correspond to a zone that has been intruded by mafic melts from the mantle during crustal extension and volcanism.     

Upper lithospheric seismic velocity structure across the Pripyat Trough and the Ukrainian Shield along the EUROBRIDGE'97 profile

We present new results on the structure resulting from Palaeoproterozoic terrane accretion and later formation of one of the aulacogens in the East European Platform. Seismic data has been acquired along the 530-km-long, N–S-striking EUROBRIDGE'97 traverse across Sarmatia, a major crustal segment of the East European Craton. The profile extends across the Ukrainian Shield from the Devonian Pripyat Trough, across the Palaeoproterozoic Volyn Block and the Korosten Pluton, into the Archaean Podolian Block. Seismic waves from chemical explosions at 18 shot points at approximately 30-km intervals were recorded in two deployments by 120 mobile three-component seismographs at 3–4 km nominal station spacing. The data has been interpreted by use of two-dimensional tomographic travel time inversion and ray trace modelling. The high data quality allows modelling of the P- and S-wave velocity structure along the profile. There are pronounced differences in seismic velocity structure of the crust and uppermost mantle between the three main tectonic provinces traversed by the profile: (i) the Pripyat Trough is a ca. 4-km-deep sedimentary basin, fully located in the Osnitsk–Mikashevichi Igneous Belt in the northern part of the profile. The velocity structure is typical for a Precambrian craton, but is underlain by a ca. 5-km-thick lowest crustal layer of high velocity. The development of the Pripyat Trough appears to have only affected the upper crust without noticeable thinning of the whole crust; this may be explained by a rheologically strong lithosphere at the time of formation of the trough. (ii) Very high seismic velocity and Vp/Vs ratio characterise the Volyn Block and Korosten Pluton to a depth of 15 km and probably also the lowest crust. The values are consistent with an intrusive body of mafic composition in the upper crust that formed from bimodal melts derived from the mantle and the lower crust. (iii) The Podolian Block is close to a typical cratonic velocity structure, although it is characterised by relatively low seismic velocity and Vp/Vs ratio. A pronounced SW-dipping mantle reflector from Moho to at least 70 km depth may represent the Proterozoic suture between Sarmatia and Volgo–Uralia, the structure from terrane accretion, or a later shear zone in the upper mantle. The sub-Moho P-wave seismic velocity is high everywhere along the profile, with the exception of the area above the dipping reflector. This velocity change further supports a plate tectonic origin of the dipping mantle reflector. The profile demonstrates that structure from Palaeoproterozoic plate tectonic processes are still identifiable in the lithosphere, even where younger metamorphic equilibration of the crust has taken place.     

地震资料的多准则速度分析方法

速度分析是地震数据处理中至关重要的一环,常规速度分析方法中,给定一系列相同间隔的速度进行扫描,以叠加能量或相似系数等作为速度分析的准则制作速度谱.速度谱的能量团通常在正确的动校正速度附近存在一定的发散,从而影响速度的拾取.通过对方差为准则的速度分析方法进行分析和研究,认为方差对同相轴的相干性比较敏感,因此,方差速度谱具有较高的精度.拾取方差速度谱中最小方差数值对应的扫描速度为动校正速度,然而实际资料处理时,由于精度太高,最小方差数值对应的区域太小,不利于速度的拾取.为此笔者提出了以方差倒数、叠加能量和相似系数三者的乘积为目标函数的多准则速度分析方法.噪声会对方差产生影响,然而噪声只是提高方差的整体数值,不会改变方差的相对大小关系,因此地震数据含有一定噪声时本文方法仍然适用.通过模型数据和实际资料的处理,验证了本方法的正确性和实用性.     

Applicability of artificial neural networks for obtaining velocity models from synthetic seismic data

Seismic velocity analysis is a crucial part of seismic data processing and interpretation which has been practiced using different methods. In contrast to time consuming and complicated numerical methods, artificial neural networks (ANNs) are found to be of potential applicability. ANN ability to establish a relationship between an input and output space is considered to be appropriate for mapping seismic velocity corresponding to travel times picked from seismograms. Accordingly a preliminary attempt is made to evaluate the applicability of ANNs to determine velocity and dips of dipping layered earth models corresponding to travel time data. The study is based on synthetic data generated using inverse modeling approach for three earth models. The models include a three-layer structure with same dips and same directions, a three-layer model with different dips and same directions, as well as a two-layer model with different dips and directions. An ANN structure is designed in three layers, namely, input, output, and hidden ones. The training and testing process of the ANN is successfully accomplished using the synthetic data. The evaluation of the applicability of the trained ANN to unknown data sets indicates that the ANN can satisfactorily compute velocity and dips corresponding to travel times. The error intervals between the desired and calculated velocity and dips are shown to be acceptably small in all cases. The applicability of the trained ANN in extrapolating is also evaluated using a number of data outside of the range already known to ANN. The results indicate that the trained ANN acceptably approximates the velocity and dips. Furthermore, the trained ANN is also evaluated in terms of capability of handling deficiency in input data where acceptable results were also achieved in velocity and dip calculations. Generally, this study shows that velocity analysis using ANNs can promisingly tackle the challenge of retrieving an initial velocity model from the travel time hyperbolas of seismic data.     

探测壳内低速层的深地震测深方法及应用

中国及全球大陆不同构造域广泛存在壳内低速层。壳内低速层不仅与地壳表层金属、非金属矿床、油气资源及地壳变形密切相关, 而且也是一些重大地震和活动断裂的发育场所。一般认为,地壳低速层反映了地壳物质的含水、热状态和部分熔融等信息, 其研究对探讨地壳结构及其动力学演化有重要意义。本文总结了利用深地震测深资料的震相走时、振幅、相位信息识别壳内低速层的5种典型方法: 1)Pg震相走时中断;2)低速层顶、底界面反射波走时曲线近似平行;3)30°~60°入射角范围内低速层顶界面反射转换波强于反射纵波;4)低速层底界面反射波强于顶界面;5)低速层顶界面反射波极性反转等。研究实例表明, 以上方法为利用深地震测深资料揭示壳内低速层提供了有效途径。     

榴辉岩的地震波性质：对苏鲁超高压变质带地壳成分和折返机制的探讨

本总结了榴辉岩的高温高压弹性波速测量结果,并将其应用于苏鲁超高压变质带地震资料的解释。由于榴辉岩具有高密度和高波速,它们和长英质片麻岩、大理岩、石英岩、角闪岩、麻粒岩、蛇纹石化橄榄岩的界面可以产生强反射。如果俯冲的陆壳物质以榴辉岩与围岩互层的形式在上地幔保留下来,就可能在造山带的上地幔产生地震反射。根据CCSD孔区地震剖面所建立的地壳成分模型表明：苏鲁超高压带地壳浅部的高速层可归因于夹在花岗质片麻岩、副片麻岩、角闪岩等岩石中的榴辉岩和超基性岩;中地壳主要由中酸性片麻岩、斜长角闪岩和副片麻岩组成;下地壳以中基性麻粒岩为主。在该超高压变质带现今的深部地壳,榴辉岩含量很少或几乎没有。因此,折返的超高压变质岩是以构造岩片的形式沿一系列剪切带逆冲并覆盖在正常的中下地壳之上,深部榴辉岩的缺乏可能与下地壳拆沉作用无关。     

Exploring the relative contribution of mineralogy and CPO to the seismic velocity anisotropy of evaporites

We present the influence of mineralogy and microstructure on the seismic velocity anisotropy of evaporites. Bulk elastic properties and seismic velocities are calculated for a suite of 20 natural evaporite samples, which consist mainly of halite, anhydrite, and gypsum. They exhibit strong fabrics as a result of tectonic and diagenetic processes. Sample mineralogy and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) were obtained with the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique and the data used for seismic velocity calculations. Bulk seismic properties for polymineralic evaporites were evaluated with a rock recipe approach. Ultrasonic velocity measurements were also taken on cube shaped samples to assess the contribution of grain-scale shape preferred orientation (SPO) to the total seismic anisotropy. The sample results suggest that CPO is responsible for a significant fraction of the bulk seismic properties, in agreement with observations from previous studies. Results from the rock recipe indicate that increasing modal proportion of anhydrite grains can lead to a greater seismic anisotropy of a halite-dominated rock. Conversely, it can lead to a smaller seismic anisotropy degree of a gypsum-dominated rock until an estimated threshold proportion after which anisotropy increases again. The difference between the predicted anisotropy due to CPO and the anisotropy measured with ultrasonic velocities is attributed to the SPO and grain boundary effects in these evaporites.     

Explosion seismic P and S velocity and attenuation constraints on the lower crust of the North–Central Tibetan Plateau, and comparison with the Tethyan Himalayas: Implications on composition, mineralogy, temperature, and tectonic evolution

P and S velocity and attenuation estimates in the lower crust are obtained from a set of wide angle reflection–refraction profiles in the region of active tectonics at the NE edge of the Tibetan Plateau and discussed together with respect to similar data at its Himalaya–south Tibet edge.The quality factor is estimated in the lower half of the crust by accounting for the differential effect on amplitude–frequency observed between waves of different penetrations, and both in P and S modes. Attenuation values allow to exclude a significant proportion of partial melt and to estimate the homologous temperature, ratio of in situ to solidus absolute temperatures. The latter depend on the physical conditions being of dry, wet or dehydration melting, which are found different among the regions of the northern Bayan Har and northern Qang Tang boundaries between blocks, as well as the Tethyan–Himalayas, south of the Indus–Tsangpo suture. Their in situ temperatures differ also as estimated from their different V_p for a similar felsic composition.Joint measurement of several parameters, V_p, V_s, Q_p and Q_s reveals the composition, mineralogy, temperature and hydration conditions of the lower half of the thickened crust of Tibet that may be discussed in terms of evolution. The material presently in the thickened crust, even its lower part, has a felsic composition, upper to middle crustal lithology, and the temperature conditions estimated suggest that basic material that could have underlain it could be eclogitized and not appear anymore above the seismic Moho.Under northern Qang Tang, the felsic material in the lower half of the crust appears as hot and dry. Its burial may have occurred earlier or may have been moderate in the postcollisional phase. This is consistent with a model of indentation of the Qang Tang crust by an originally thinner Bayan Har crust to bring part of its crust to greater depth, suggested from imaging the crustal architecture. Under northern Bayan Har, the material in the lower half of the crust appears as felsic, at low temperature and not dry conditions. This is evidence that it has been transported from a shallower depth, and this recently enough not to be yet dehydrated and temperature equilibrated in a conductive geotherm. It supports a model of recent overriding of the middle crust of the north Kun Lun block to the north independently suggested from the image of crustal architecture. The Tethyan Himalayas case appears bracketed by these two cases in northern Tibet for V_p and temperature conditions, but shows highest attenuation in the lower crust that is colder but less dry than under northern Qang Tang.     

Petrological constraints on seismic properties of the Slave upper mantle (Northern Canada)

Modes and compositions of minerals in Slave mantle xenoliths, together with their pressures and temperatures of equilibrium were used to derive model depth profiles of P- and S-wave velocities (Vp, Vs) for composites equivalent to peridotite, pyroxenite and eclogite. The rocks were modeled as isotropic aggregates with uniform distribution of crystal orientations, based on single-crystal elastic moduli and volume fractions of constituent minerals. Calculated seismic wave velocities are adjusted for in situ pressure and temperature conditions using (1) experimental P- and T- derivatives for bulk rocks' Vp and Vs, and (2) calculated P- and T- derivatives for bulk rocks' elastic moduli and densities. The peridotite seismic profiles match well with the globally averaged IASP91 model and with seismic tomography results for the Slave mantle. In peridotite, an observed increase of seismic wave velocities with depth is controlled by lower degrees of chemical depletion in the deeper upper mantle. In eclogite, seismic velocities increase more rapidly with depth than in peridotite. This follows from contrasting first-order pressure derivatives of bulk isotropic moduli for eclogite and peridotite, and from the lower compressibility of eclogite at high pressures. Our calculations suggest that depletion in cratonic mantle has a distinct seismic signature compared to non-cratonic mantle. Depleted mantle on cratons should have slower Vp, faster Vs and should show lower Poisson's ratios due to an orthopyroxene enrichment. For the modelled Slave craton xenoliths, the predicted effect on seismic wave velocities would be up to 0.05 km/s.     

浅析浅层折射地震资料解释中检波距选择的合理性

检波距是浅层折射地震勘探中的一个重要参数,检波距的合理选择是资料解释结果可靠性的重要保证。特别是在二元和多元地形条件下的折射地震勘探资料解释中,选择平距或斜距来计算检波距在不同行业和单位是不统一的。这里从理论上探讨了在二元地形条件下,浅层折射地震资料解释中用平距和斜距二种方法计算检波距对表层有效速度的影响和误差大小,明晰了实际工作中二元或多元地形条件下,不同检波距计算方法所引起折射地震勘探资料解释结果的差异和误差大小及其合理性。     

闽台地区Pn速度结构反演问题

本文简要介绍了利用Pn波走时研究地壳内部结构的基本原理。以及如何运用福建数字地震台网观测资料研究闽台地区莫霍面结构的基本思路和方法。为今后开展这项工作提供参考     

低信噪比地震资料处理中的精细速度分析方法

为了提高低信噪比资料速度分析的精度,得到中深层可靠的速度信息。针对关中地区深部隐伏断裂构造调查的地质目标,在二维地震勘探的基础上,对低信噪比地震资料采用\     

Proterozoic sutures and terranes in the southeastern Baltic Shield interpreted from BABEL deep seismic data

A hitherto unknown terrane and its bounding sutures have been revealed by a combined study of normal-incidence and wide-angle seismic data along the BABEL profile in the Baltic Sea. This Intermediate Terrane is situated between a Northern Terrane of Svecofennian age and a Southwestern Terrane of Gothian age. It is delimited upwards by two low-angle and oppositely dipping sutures and occupies mainly middle and lower crustal levels with a width of 300 km at Moho level. The 1.86 Ga suture against the Northern Terrane is imaged by a prominent almost continuous NE-dipping crustal reflection from 3.5 to 14 s twt over 175 km. Where it downlaps on the Moho, sub-Moho velocities change from 8.2 to 7.8 km/s (±0.2) over less than 25 km. A relatively strong, NE-dipping normal-incidence and wide-angle reflection at 19–23 s twt indicates that the suture extends into the upper mantle. The pervasive NE-dipping reflection fabric of the Intermediate Terrane is interpreted as shear zones that developed during collision and possibly were reactivated by later events. High Poisson's ratios suggest a mafic composition or high fluid content. The 1.86 Ga collision was probably succeeded by continental break-up and removal of an unknown continent, except for the Intermediate Terrane. Subsequent formation of an east-dipping subduction zone further to the west led to the emplacement of 1.81-1.77-Ga-old granitoids in the southern part of the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt. The 1.65-1.60 Ga suture against the Southwestern Terrane is defined by a semi-continuous band of strong SW-dipping reflections between 3 and 8 s twt over 65 km, which are interpreted as a low-angle thrust zone along which Gothian crust overrode the Intermediate Terrane. The identification of three individual seismic terranes in the southeastern part of the Baltic Shield provides new evidence for Palaeoproterozoic plate tectonic processes.     

高精度相位相关速度分析技术在海上地震资料中的应用

海上复杂构造区地震资料数据信噪比低,以叠加能量法为主的常规速度分析方法其速度分辨率和精度不能满足精细处理的要求。以南海东部某工区为靶区,对比研究了高精度相位相关速度分析法与常规叠加能量速度分析法,前者提高了速度谱在空间和时间上的精度,得到效果较好的地震叠加剖面,特别是低信噪比区域的成像精度有较大提高。     

Crustal and upper mantle S-wave velocity structures across the Taiwan Strait from ambient seismic noise and teleseismic Rayleigh wave analyses

Although orogeny tapers off in western Taiwan large and small earthquakes do occur in the Taiwan Strait, a region largely untouched in previous studies owing mostly to logistical reasons. But the overall crustal structure of this region is of particular interest as it may provide a hint of the proto-Taiwan before the orogeny.By combining time domain empirical Green’s function (TDEGF) from ambient seismic noise using station-pairs and traditional surface wave two-station method (TS) we are able to construct Rayleigh wave phase velocity dispersion curves between 5 and 120 s. Using Broadband Array in Taiwan for Seismology (BATS) stations in Taiwan and in and across the Strait we are able to derive average 1-D Vs structures in different parts of this region. The results show significant shear velocity differences in the upper 15 km crust as expected. In general, the highest Vs in the upper crust observed in the coastal area of Mainland China and the lowest Vs appears along the southwest offshore of the Taiwan Island; they differ by about 0.6–1.1 km/s. For different parts of the Strait, the upper crust Vs structures are lower in the middle by about 0.1–0.2 km/s relative to those in the northern and southern parts. The upper mantle Vs structure (Moho – 150 km) beneath the Taiwan Strait is about 0.1–0.3 km/s lower than the AK135 model. The overall crustal thickness is approximately 30 km, much thinner and less variable than under the Taiwan Island. The inversion of seismic velocity structures using shorter period band dispersion data in the sea areas with water depth deeper than 1000 m should take water layer into consideration except for the continental shelves.