Scales and spectra of turbulence over the gulf stream during offshore cyclogenesis

Turbulence structure of the marine boundary layer (MBL) over the Gulf Stream and the adjacent coastal waters during the development of a storm is discussed. Prestorm conditions prevailed on 9 February and a meso-low formed on 10 February which intensified into an offshore cyclone on 11 February. Observations from aircraft, buoys and ships were made as part of the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment (GALE, 86) during these three days. Analysis of the high frequency (20 Hz) turbulence data collected from low-level flights by the NCAR King Air and Electra indicates the effect of the storm development on the turbulence structure of the MBL.Observational data over the stable region near the coast on 10 February revealed the presence of internal gravity waves. Spectral analysis indicates that the size and energy of the eddies increased over the Gulf Stream and also increased as the storm developed. Results obtained using conditional sampling techniques suggest that intense narrower warm updrafts dominate the total heat flux. The broader, less intense cool downdrafts seem to occupy a large portion of the Gulf Stream.     

2007年3月3—5日强雨雪过程中的干冷空气活动及其作用

利用FY-2卫星资料、多普勒雷达资料、地面观测站常规资料及1°×1°NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,运用红外云图云顶亮温TBB、等熵位涡IPV、水汽通量、位温θ、相对湿度及风场等物理参量对北方晚冬一次强雨雪过程的水汽来源和干冷空气活动及其作用进行了分析。结果表明：江淮气旋为强雨雪的产生提供充沛的水汽,而干冷空气则在不同高度、不同路径活动,扮演着多种角色。对流层低层干冷空气作为“冷垫”锲入暖湿气流中,促进锋生和暖湿空气的抬升、凝结;对流层上层具有高位涡的干冷空气沿320 K等熵面（等位温面）自高纬冲下,给江淮气旋的加强、维持提供了动力和热力条件,同时等熵正位涡高值区（IPV≥10-6m2.s-1.K.kg-1）和相对湿度小于等于45%的干区与红外云图暗区（TBB≥-32℃）对应得非常吻合,这说明利用卫星资料来追踪高位涡轨迹的可行性。云头部次冷输送带干冷空气在2-3 km高度卷入、叠加在暖湿层上,有利于不稳定层结的形成和不稳定能量的释放,是造成渤海西岸局部大到暴雪天气的重要因素。     

基于火箭探空资料的冰雹云内部结构个例分析

利用探空火箭、新一代天气雷达和气象探测资料对2015年7月17日延安宝塔区冰雹云进行了综合探测,结果表明:（1）当日08:00（北京时,下同）500 hPa河套低涡分裂东移,有较强冷平流且移动速度较快,地面14:00升温明显造成了这次降雹。（2）偏后位置的冰雹云内部温、湿条件以及对流指数（T_g）、整层比湿积分（IQ）、总指数（TT）均小于外部的自然大气;层结稳定度指数（K）、抬升指数（LI）、沙氏指数（SI）冰雹云内部比外部自然大气偏小;热力参数风暴强度指数（SSI）冰雹云内部低于外部自然大气;冰雹云内部能量参数（CAPE）明显低于自然大气;冰雹云内部0°C层高度低于冰雹云外部自然大气。（3）火箭探测的位置偏冰雹云后部,冰雹云由低层到高层风向呈逆时针变化,探空仪摆动明显,?20°C温度层偏高,气流较强,整层偏下沉气流。（4）冰雹云0°C附近,在温度区间?1.8～5.0°C、厚度1.0 km范围内有最大湿度区,湿度达80%以上,最大湿度87.1%,为冰雹的形成提供了水汽条件。（5）紧贴0°C下正温区,有最大水平风速为19 m s?1急流,厚度为0.022 km。在温度区间?4.8～5.0°C、厚度1.6 km范围内维持13 m s?1以上水平风速,为冰雹的形成提供了动力场条件。（6）在温度区间?8.7～?9.2°C、厚度0.2 km,有小于或等于2 m s?1弱风区;弱风区下方,在温度区间?4.6～?8.8°C、厚度0.889 km有上升气流,平均上升速度1.79 m s?1,最大上升速度4 m s?1,这种配置为冰雹的生长提供了环境场。     

Internal Gravity Waves Generated by a Local Thermal Source in an Irrotational Zonal－Vertical Plane：Numerical Analysis

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辽宁省温带气旋龙卷的环境参数特征

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA5再分析数据, 统计1979—2020年辽宁省42个温带气旋龙卷环境背景和物理量参数特征, 结果表明:辽宁省温带气旋龙卷多发于温带气旋中心的西南、东南象限, 与冷锋前暖区相对应, 主要分布在辽河平原中西部及渤海湾沿岸, 强龙卷(EF2及以上级别)占比为28.6%。风暴相对螺旋度和对流有效位能的大值区出现在气旋西南—东南象限, 呈带状分布, 龙卷风暴主要分布于风暴相对螺旋度大值区西北侧、对流有效位能大值区的顶端的强梯度区附近。强龙卷参数最大值达0.7, 其大值区与EF2及以上级别龙卷相对应。地面冷锋和干线是温带气旋龙卷的关键触发系统, 对比近气旋中心和冷锋尾部湿度垂直分布, 后者所表现的高层强干侵入导致风暴产生更强的冷池, 过强的下沉气流可能是龙卷产生的不利因素。温带气旋龙卷多分布于高空急流左侧气流的分流区内, 对应高空强辐散区。0~3 km垂直温度递减率大值区与气旋中心附近的弱龙卷高发区有较好对应关系。     

Spatial and Temporal Occurrences of Intermittent Turbulence During CASES-99

Occurrences of intermittent turbulence in very stable conditions during theCASES-99 field study near Leon, Kansas were detected at several sites separatedby horizontal distances from 1 km to 25 km using sonic anemometers, minisodarsand a laser scintillometer. Periods with significant turbulent heat fluxes wereseparated by extended quiescent periods with little or no flux, and most of theflux during a night was realized in relatively small fractions (<20%) of thetotal time. There appeared to be no relationship between this intermittencyfraction and the median z/L (z being height and L the Obukhov length)value for the night, although overall sensible heat flux values on very stablenights were significantly less than those on less stable nights. The intermittencyfraction at 7 m was found to increase with mean wind speed at 20 m and, to alesser extent, with wind shear between 20 m and 30 m. While correspondenceof turbulent episodes at two sites separated by 1 km was common, it was less common at separations on the order of 20 km. There were time periods, however, during which enhanced turbulence levels were seen nearly simultaneously at large separation distances. Turbulence episodes were found to propagate upward or downward at different times with no readily defined large-scale controlling mechanism.     

The Spatial and Temporal Variability of Global Stratospheric Gravity Waves and Their Activity during Sudden Stratospheric Warming Revealed by COSMIC Measurements

This study investigates the spatial and temporal variability of global stratospheric gravity waves (GWs) and the characteristics of GW activity during sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) using the GPS radio occultation measurements from the COSMIC mission during September 2006 to May 2013. Corresponding to the COSMIC RO observational window and analysis method, GW potential energy (Ep) with vertical scales no shorter than ～2 km is resolved. It is found that the distributions of GW Ep over 20-30 km and 30-38 km show similar spatial and seasonal variations. The variations of GW Ep with altitude and latitude along the westerly wind are identified in different seasons over 60°-80°W. In the middle and high latitudes, seasonal cycles are distinct in the time-latitude and time-altitude distributions of GW activities, which show larger Ep in winters when westerly wind dominates and smaller Ep in summers when easterly wind dominates. The influence of quasi-biennial oscillation on GW activity is recognized in the tropics. GW Ep enhances closely following the occurrence of minor SSW events; while during major events, GW Ep may not enhance, and sometimes may even weaken, in the regions where reversals of zonal wind occur, probably caused by the filtering impact of the 0 m s-1 wind level on the GWs.     

2015年5月华南一次龙卷过程观测分析

利用常规观测、珠江三角洲区域自动气象站、广州多普勒天气雷达、深圳机场风廓线雷达及NCEP/NCAR等资料对2015年5月11日下午发生在深圳宝安机场附近的一次龙卷天气过程进行分析。结果表明:这次龙卷发生在500 hPa槽前、850 hPa切变线南侧以及地面冷锋的暖区一侧,上干冷、下暖湿的结构加剧了条件不稳定,环境对流有效位能很大,风垂直切变强,水汽丰富;产生龙卷的回波快速演变为逗点回波,出现钩状回波,龙卷发生在钩状回波内侧的弱回波区附近;与之对应的中气旋旋转速度不断加大,半径减小,并向低层发展。     

Energy- and Flux-Budget Turbulence Closure Model for Stably Stratified Flows. Part II: The Role of Internal Gravity Waves

We advance our prior energy- and flux-budget (EFB) turbulence closure model for stably stratified atmospheric flow and extend it to account for an additional vertical flux of momentum and additional productions of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), turbulent potential energy (TPE) and turbulent flux of potential temperature due to large-scale internal gravity waves (IGW). For the stationary, homogeneous regime, the first version of the EFB model disregarding large-scale IGW yielded universal dependencies of the flux Richardson number, turbulent Prandtl number, energy ratios, and normalised vertical fluxes of momentum and heat on the gradient Richardson number, Ri. Due to the large-scale IGW, these dependencies lose their universality. The maximal value of the flux Richardson number (universal constant ≈0.2–0.25 in the no-IGW regime) becomes strongly variable. In the vertically homogeneous stratification, it increases with increasing wave energy and can even exceed 1. For heterogeneous stratification, when internal gravity waves propagate towards stronger stratification, the maximal flux Richardson number decreases with increasing wave energy, reaches zero and then becomes negative. In other words, the vertical flux of potential temperature becomes counter-gradient. Internal gravity waves also reduce the anisotropy of turbulence: in contrast to the mean wind shear, which generates only horizontal TKE, internal gravity waves generate both horizontal and vertical TKE. Internal gravity waves also increase the share of TPE in the turbulent total energy (TTE = TKE + TPE). A well-known effect of internal gravity waves is their direct contribution to the vertical transport of momentum. Depending on the direction (downward or upward), internal gravity waves either strengthen or weaken the total vertical flux of momentum. Predictions from the proposed model are consistent with available data from atmospheric and laboratory experiments, direct numerical simulations and large-eddy simulations.     

Single-Doppler Radar Observations of a High Precipitation Supercell Accompanying the 12 April 2003 Severe Squall Line in Fujian Province

In this study,single Doppler radar data were used to examine the structure and evolution of a high precipitation(HP) supercell embedded in a cold front near Jianyang,Fujian Province on 12 April 2003.The synoptic environment was characterized by high humidity at low levels,moderate CAPE(convective available potential energy;1601 J kg~(-1)),moderate wind shear(22 m s~(-1) in 0-5 km),and veering of the horizontal winds with height,similar to those HP supercells previously observed in midlatitudes.In additio...     

重力惯性波及其不稳定——急流附近飞机颠簸产生的可能机制

基于不可压缩流体运动方程组研究了急流附近重力惯性波及其不稳定,结合飞机风速变化方程,分析指出重力波失稳破碎为湍流是飞机颠簸产生的可能机制。斜压大气在急流轴北侧气旋切变区是惯性稳定的,当满足条件σ=f[f-/y] N2m2/n2<0时,由于天气尺度对流不稳定发展而引起重力惯性波不稳定破碎为湍流,可能是急流北侧气旋切变区对流性天气引起飞机颠簸产生的一种机制。但是在急流轴南侧反气旋切变区是惯性不稳定的,当满足条件σ=f[f-/y] N2m2/n2<0时,可能由于惯性不稳定的作用,急流重力波不稳定发展破碎为湍流,可能是急流南侧反气旋气流中晴空湍流和飞机颠簸产生和发展的一种机制。揭示了急流附近晴空湍流和飞机颠簸产生的物理本质,有利于增强航空飞行颠簸的预测能力。     

Impact of the Nocturnal Low-Level Jet and Orographic Waves on Turbulent Motions and Energy Fluxes in the Lower Atmospheric Boundary Layer

The nocturnal low-level jet (LLJ) and orographic (gravity) waves play an important role in the generation of turbulence and pollutant dispersion and can affect the energy production by wind turbines. Additionally, gravity waves have an influence on the local mixing and turbulence within the surface layer and the vertical flux of mass into the lower atmosphere. On 25 September 2017, during a field campaign, a persistent easterly LLJ and gravity waves were observed simultaneously in a coastal area in the north of France. We explore the variability of the wind speed, turbulent eddies, and turbulence kinetic energy in the time–frequency and space domain using an ultrasonic anemometer and a scanning wind lidar. The results reveal a significant enhancement of the turbulence-kinetic-energy dissipation (by?50%) due to gravity waves in the LLJ shear layer (below the jet core) during the period of wave propagation. Large magnitudes of zonal and vertical components of the shear stress (approximately 0.4 and 1.5 m² s^?2, respectively) are found during that period. Large eddies (scales of 110 to 280 m) matching the high-wind-speed regime are found to propagate the momentum downwards, which enhances the mass transport from the LLJ shear layer to the roughness layer. Furthermore, these large-scale eddies are associated with the crests while comparatively small-scale eddies are associated with the troughs of the gravity wave.

     

Momentum flux of stratospheric gravity waves generated by Typhoon Ewiniar(2006)

The momentum flux of stratospheric gravity waves generated by Typhoon Ewiniar (2006) is examined using a Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. In the stratosphere, zonal momentum flux with a positive sign by eastward-propagating waves is significant during the northward moving of the typhoon, while both zonal and meridional momentum fluxes with positive signs are significant during the typhoon decaying stage in which the typhoon moves northeastward. The magnitude of the momentum flux is greater during the mature stage of the typhoon than the decaying stage, and the phase speeds of the dominant momentum flux are less than 30 m s^?1 with a peak at 10–16 m s^?1. Positive momentum flux decreases with height overall in the stratosphere for both zonal and meridional components. The resultant gravity-wave drag forcing plays a role to decelerate the easterly background wind in the stratosphere. This drag forcing is relatively large above z = 40 km and below z = 20 km, and lower stratospheric wave drag is expected to affect the typhoon dynamics by modifying the background wind shear and inducing the secondary circulation in the troposphere.     

Intensive Radiosonde Measurements of Summertime Convection over the Inner Mongolia Grassland in 2014:Difference between Shallow Cumulus and Other Conditions

Using radiosonde measurements from 26 July to 30 July 2014 at Baiqi over the Inner Mongolia grassland of China, the vertical structure of shallow cumulus(SCu) clouds and associated environmental conditions were investigated. The cloud base height and the cloud top height of SCu was 3.4 km and 5 km, respectively. The temperature of the SCu layer was less than 0℃. The horizontal advection of specific humidity was smaller than the vertical transport in the atmosphere below 5 km.Above 5 km, the thermodynamic structure of the atmosphere remained stable. At the interface of the cloud layer and free air atmosphere, there was obvious wind shear and a temperature inversion(~2.9℃). Comparisons of environmental parameters associated with cumulus congestus, rain and clear days, showed that the formation of SCu was characterized by a higher Bowen ratio(high sensible heat flux and low latent heat flux), which indicated intensive turbulence in the boundary layer. The formation of SCu was associated with the boundary layer height exceeding the lifting condensation level. The maintenance of SCu was likely associated with the lower convective available potential energy, weak wind shear, and weak subsidence of the synoptic system, which did not favor the dramatic vertical development of SCu and thereby the transformation of SCu to cumulus congestus.     

Structure of Thunderstorm Gust Fronts with Topographic Effects

Surface meteorological observations, associated with gust fronts produced by thunderstorm outflows over Tehran, an area surrounded by mountains, have been analyzed. Distinctive features are sudden drop in air temperature, up to 10℃, sharp increase in wind speed, up to 30 m s-1, with wind shift, to northwesterly, ressure jump, up to 4 hPa, humidity increase, up to 40%, and rain after some 20 min. Gust fronts which often occur in spring time, have a typical thickness of about 1.5 km and produce vertical wind shear of the order of 10-2s-1. Although these features seem to be common for most of the events, their intensities differ from one event to another, indicating that the gust fronts may occur in different sizes and shapes. Apart from a dominant effect on the formation of the original thunderstorms, topography appears to break up the frontal structure of the gust fronts. The internal Rossby radius of deformation for these flows is small enough (～ 100 km) for rotational effects to be minor.A laboratory model of the gust front (gravity current) also shows that it initially has a distinctive head with a turbulent wake, and can be broken up by topography. It is shown that when the environment is stratified, turbulence due to lobes and clefts instabilities near the nose of the current is suppressed. When the ground is rough, these instabilities are highly amplified and the internal Froude number of the flow is reduced. The bottom slope in the presence of rough topography leads to the break up of the current head and produces a broad and highly non-uniform head, recognized in the density signals.     

产生致灾大风的超级单体回波特征

基于中国东部平原地区31部S波段多普勒天气雷达数据和实况记录,筛选出2002-2020年56次由超级单体风暴导致的25m·s-1以上的直线型大风事件,分析超级单体风暴多普勒天气雷达回波特征与其导致的直线型大风间关系,获得产生直线型致灾大风的超级单体的量化结构特征,为超级单体产生的大风的主客观监测预警提供参考.统计结果表...     

Two modes and their seasonal and interannual variation of the baroclinic waves/storm tracks over the wintertime North Pacific

In this study, a newly developed method, termed moving empirical orthogonal function analysis (MEOF), is applied to the study of midlatitude baroclinic waves over the wintertime North Pacific from 1979 to 2009. It is shown that when the daily, high-pass filtered (2-10 days) meridional wind at 250 hPa is chosen as the variable of the MEOF analysis, typical features of baroclinic waves/storm tracks over the wintertime North Pacific can be well described by this method. It is found that the first two leading modes of the MEOF analysis, MEOF1 and MEOF2, assume quite different patterns. MEOF1 takes the form of a single wave train running in the east-west direction along 40°N, while MEOF2 is a double wave train pattern running in the east-west direction along 50°N and 30°N, respectively. The shift composites of various anomalous fields based on MEOF1 and MEOF2 assume typical baroclinic wave features. MEOF1 represents a primary storm track pulsing with an intrinsic time scale of two days. It shows significant "midwinter suppression" and apparent interannual variability. It is stronger after the mid-1990s than before the mid-1990s. MEOF2 represents a double-branch storm track, also with an intrinsic time scale of approximately two days, running along 50°N and 30°N, respectively. It shows no apparent seasonal variation, but its interannual and decadal variation is quite clear. It oscillates with larger amplitude and longer periods after the mid-1990s than before the mid-1990s, and is heavily modulated by El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).     

Dynamic and thermodynamic features of low and middle clouds derived from atmospheric radiation measurement program mobile facility radiosonde data at Shouxian,China

By using the radiosonde measurements collected at Shouxian,China,we examined the dynamics and thermodynamics of single- and two-layer clouds formed at low and middle levels.The analyses indicated that the horizontal wind speed above the cloud layers was higher than those within and below cloud layers.The maximum balloon ascent speed(5.3 m s~(-1)) was located in the vicinity of the layer with the maximum cloud occurrence frequency(24.4%),indicating an upward motion(0.1-0.16 ms~(-1)).The average thickness,magnitude and gradient of the temperature inversion layer above single-layer clouds were117±94 m,1.3±1.3℃ and 1.4±1.5℃(100 m)~(-1),respectively.The average temperature inversion magnitude was the same(1.3℃) for single-low and single-middle clouds;however,a larger gradient[1.7±1.8℃(100 m)~(-1)]and smaller thickness(94±67 m) were detected above single-low clouds relative to those above single-middle clouds[0.9±0.7℃(100 m)~(-1) and157±120 m].For the two-layer cloud,the temperature inversion parameters were 106±59 m,1.0±0.9℃ and 1.0±1.0℃(100 m)~(-1) above the upper-layer cloud and 82 ± 60 m,0.6±0.9℃ and 0.7±0.6℃(100 m)~(-1) above the low-layer cloud.Absolute differences between the cloud-base height(cloud-top height) and the lifting condensation level(equilibrium level)were less than 0.5 km for 66.4%(36.8%) of the cases analyzed in summer.     

北京地区一次强沙尘暴过程的大气边界层结构和湍流通量输送特征

利用中国科学院大气物理研究所北京325 m气象塔的风速和温度平均场观测资料和湍流资料,以及北京市气象台地面常规气象资料和逐日08:00和20:00(北京时间)的探空资料,分析了2002年3月18～22日沙尘暴过境前后北京城市边界层结构特征和湍流输送特征,结果表明:1)在沙尘暴爆发前,边界层中水平风速一直较小;气温较高,大气层结稳定,在边界层上部有强大的逆温层.随着冷锋过境,沙尘暴爆发,边界层中水平风速和平均湍流速度急剧增强;温度也突然变化,先迅速增强后又持续下降,逆温层迅速被破坏.2)沙尘暴初期,280 m上为系统性上升气流,而47和120 m则为系统性的下沉气流.随着沙尘暴爆发,湍流动能、向下传输的动量以及向上传输的感热也迅速增大,并且120 m高度的湍能、动量通量以及感热通量明显高于47和280 m,这与北京的局地环流有关.3)本次沙尘暴过程中,120和47 m层的摩擦速度都明显超过了北京的临界摩擦速度,表明局地起沙也是本次沙尘暴过程中北京沙尘的一个重要沙源.     

Generation mechanisms of convectively induced internal gravity waves in a three-dimensional framework

The generation mechanisms of convective gravity waves in the stratosphere are investigated in a three-dimensional framework by conducting numerical simulations of four ideal storms under different environmental conditions: one un-sheared and three constant low-level sheared basic-state winds with the depth of the shear layer of 6 km and the surface wind speeds (U_s) of 8, 18, and 28 m s^?1, using the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) model. The storms simulated under the un-sheared (U_s = 0 m s^?1), weakly sheared (U_s = 8 and 18ms^?1), and strongly sheared (U_s = 28ms^?1) basicstate winds are classified into single-cell, multicell, and supercell storms, respectively. For each storm, the wave perturbations in a control simulation, including nonlinearity and microphysical processes, are compared with those in quasi-linear dry simulations forced by diabatic forcing and nonlinear forcing that are obtained from the control simulation. The gravity waves generated by the two forcing terms in the quasi-linear dry simulations are out of phase with each other for all of the storms. The gravity waves in the control simulation are represented by a linear sum of the wave perturbations generated by the nonlinear forcing and diabatic forcing. This result is consistent with the results of previous studies in a two-dimensional framework. This implies that both forcing mechanisms are important for generating the convective gravity waves in the three-dimensional framework as well. The characteristics of the three-dimensional gravity waves in the stratosphere were determined by the spectral combination of the forcing terms and the wave-filtering and resonance factor that is determined from the basic-state wind and stability as well as the vertical structure of the forcing.