早期农业聚落的野生食物资源域研究——以长江下游和中原地区为例

遗址资源域分析(Site Catchment Analysis)已被广泛应用于对史前经济和人类行为模式的研究中,有别于西方普遍采用的“遗址外”(off-site)研究模式,本文提倡一种以“遗址内”(on-site)为核心的研究方法。主要通过遗址所见大植物遗存,结合古环境研究成果,模拟复原当时的植被分布,进而讨论遗址资源域及其反映的生业经济特点。第一个案例是长江下游的田螺山遗址,属于河姆渡文化（6900～6500cal.aB.P.）,分析表明: 早期的水稻栽培活动是长期伴生于采集经济模式中的;  当时的采集经济具有广域性、专门性、季节性和强调储存性等特点;  这一时期聚落的选址会优先考虑生态环境的多样性,在步行一天的活动半径便可获得大部分植物资源,但也有一些资源分布于12小时半径之外,必须短期露营（可能与狩猎同时进行）方可获取。第二个案例是中原地区的颍河上游,分析以袁桥遗址为中心的仰韶文化聚落（6000cal.aB.P.）: 尽管 2～3 小时的步行范围内就有条件获取各类野生植物资源,仰韶文化时期的生业活动已经集中在更小空间范围内的作物栽培上。遗址资源域缩小、对小范围景观进行改造、聚落间产生土地分配和资源共享等社会关系问题——这些构成了农业聚落资源域的一般特点。比较两个案例,农业聚落的产生可以看作是一种景观环境上发生的变化。遗址资源域分析为我们提供了一个新的视角来理解早期农业社会的产生、发展及不同生业社会与周边景观的互动关系。     

Dynamic landscapes and human dispersal patterns: tectonics,coastlines, and the reconstruction of human habitats

Studies of the impact of physical environment on human evolution usually focus on climate as the main external forcing agent of evolutionary and cultural change. In this paper we focus on changes in the physical character of the landscape driven by geophysical processes as an equally potent factor. Most of the landscapes where finds of early human fossils and artefacts are concentrated are ones that have been subjected to high levels of geological instability, either because of especially active tectonic processes associated with faulting and volcanic activity or because of proximity to coastlines subject to dramatic changes of geographical position and physical character by changes of relative sea level. These processes can have both beneficial effects, creating ecologically attractive conditions for human settlement, and deleterious or disruptive ones, creating barriers to movement, disruption of ecological conditions, or hazards to survival. Both positive and negative factors can have powerful selective effects on human behaviour and patterns of settlement and dispersal. We consider both these aspects of the interaction, develop a framework for the reconstruction and comparison of landscapes and landscape change at a variety of scales, and illustrate this with selected examples drawn from Africa and Arabia.     

A rural development strategy for the Apuseni Mountains, Romania

The Apuseni Mountains, part of the Western Carpathians, are distinctive in cultural terms because of the highly dispersed settlement patterns that have developed on the high erosion surfaces where the Moti people cleared the forests to allow for an expansion of family farming in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These small ‘crang’ settlements remain, but the population is declining in the face of limited employment opportunities and poor services. The question arises as to the most appropriate rural development strategy for the region, following the communist period which encouraged centralisation through the provision of housing and industry in key villages and new towns. The emphasis on private farming and the expansion of tourism could protect the inherited cultural landscape but money must be found to improve rural services. There is also a strong conservation movement which supports the establishment of a national park, but this could constrain development through controls on grazing and woodcutting. Hence the dialogue continues to find the best compromise and the concept of a ‘natural park’ is being discussed with such a reconciliation in mind. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Mediation agreement to resolve an environmental conflict and its social implications: the case of Wadi Zalmon (Israel National Park)

Mediation refers to an informal process in which a neutral third party helps parties in conflict attain an agreement which they were unable to reach on their own. It is mainly used to solve social, economic and political problems, but its characteristics allow using it to resolve also environmental disputes. The purpose of this article is to examine over a period of time the different attitudes of some groups of populations (communities, municipalities and governmental authorities) toward mediation agreement and its implications. The agreement was signed for an area which was declared a National Park due to its unique landscape—characterized as a cultural landscape (a landscape which represents a combined works of nature and of man). Examination over time is intended to expose whether changes have taken place in the populations in respect to the agreement and its social and cultural influences on them. The paper is dealing with Wadi Zalmon, a stream flowing from east to west in Western Galilee, in the north part of Israel and its environs. In this declaration are involved many populations, which represent the multicultural distinctiveness of Israeli society: Christians, Moslems, Bedouins and Jews.     

Settlement patterns in Judea and Samaria

The settlement patterns of the West Bank (Judea and Samaria) reflect the physical and cultural makeup of the area. Physical factors are most important in conditioning the layout and size of settlements. The dominance of fairly uniform Arab population reduces, to some extent, the significance of the cultural factor for the purpose of differentiating patterns, but recent Jewish settlement has introduced distinct new forms. The patterns can also be related to the age of the settlement. This applies to the Arab communities and not only to the Jewish ones. It is shown that patterns can be identified and explained by the intersection of the time factor and a certain langscape factor. Nine different patterns (two Jewish, six Arab and one mixed) are identified and explained.This article is the outgrowth of research which was supported by the Bar-Ilan University Research Authority and the Moskowitz Cathedra for Research on the Land of Israel.     

A conceptual investigation of the ontological commensurability of spatial data infrastructures among different cultures

Humans think and communicate in very flexible and schematic ways, and a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) for the Amazon and associated information system ontologies should reflect this flexibility and the adaptive nature of human cognition in order to achieve semantic interoperability. In this paper I offer a conceptual investigation of SDI and explore the nature of cultural schemas as expressions of indigenous ontologies and the challenges of semantic interoperability across cultures. Cultural schemas are, in essence, our ontologies, but they are markedly different than classical formal ontologies. They shape our ontological commitments to what exists in the world as well as the ways in which we approach and engage the world. And while they help structure our understanding of the world in which we are embedded, they are associative and flexible. They help to focus our attention to particular details of our experiences and give them salience, yet they cannot be simply reduced to a series of extracted features. They allow us to make meaning of the contextualized, cultural experience in which we are always immersed. An SDI is a shared social-technological-informational structure that, if it is to be useful and successful for sustainability in the Amazon, must incorporate and use indigenous cultural schemas. Indigenous communities must have the ability to contribute to the collection of geospatial data and their contributions recognized as legitimate forms of knowledge. In order for the SDI to work, it must recognize the larger cultural landscape to which cultural schemas can connect to the ready-to-hand elements of salient cultural experiences.     

The landscape as a geosystem

The main object of study of geography is the landscape sphere that includes the surface of our planet. The landscape sphere differs from the other geospheres by displaying unusual complexity and consists of structured sets of components which exhibit discernible relationships with one another and operate as a system. The functioning of the landscape sphere is conditioned by the interrelationships of components, as well as by the transfer of mass and energy from one part of the landscape sphere to another in the form of streams of mobile elements. The author is using the name geosystem for determination of this system of planetary dimensions. The landscape sphere may be further divided into subsystems exhibiting characteristic features which facilitate their identification and delimitation.Territorial differentiation of the landscape sphere, on the basis of the law of zonality, produces horizontal, latitudinal and vertical zones called by author geoms. These geoms may be further subdivided into geosystems of smaller dimensions called geochoras. The basic geochora is the landscape. In most landscapes the key elements in these geosystems are controlled by Man and so-called cultural landscapes are developed. The cultural landscapes are parts of the landscape sphere within which natural and socioeconomic geosystems co-exist. The author further distinguishes cultured, disturbed and devastated landscapes. The study of cultural landscape is amongst the most difficult fields of investigation, but such studies are of great significance in terms of predicting future environmental developments.     

喀斯特峡谷洞穴景区景观保育与发展协同评价研究——以云南九乡峡谷洞穴景区为例

建立自然保护、恢复与社会经济发展相协调的保护地评价指标体系,以达到评估景观保育情况,分析在社会经济发展中的作用,获取景观保育持续提升的方向和对策是本文目标。以云南九乡峡谷洞穴景区为例,设计了景区景观的自然性、功能性和属地性指数评价体系。九乡景区景观自然性指数为7.004,属次生景观类;景区功能性指数是7.58,属发展型景区;属地性指数6.8,属景区产业向服务社区与居民就业方向转型的过渡产业型景区。根据九乡景区景观格局和保护利用状态,提出四个景观保育区,分别是乡土植物廊道和文化景观保育区、峡谷河道景观保育区、峡谷洞穴景观与地表植被保育区、植被管护与石漠化治理区等。景观保育措施主要是自然保育与恢复,以实现管理景观自然化,同时发展景区社区主导的旅游服务业与开发民特产品,增强景观保护的社会经济基础。      

No boundaries: exurbia and the study of contemporary urban dispersion

The dream of a house in the country, at the seashore, or near a ski hill, is one shared by many in North American society. But the environmental and social impacts of the realization of this dream by an increasing number of people has created crises and conflict for many communities. The concept of exurbia has traditionally been used to describe settlement patterns simultaneously dispersed from the city yet also connected to urban networks. This paper reviews scholarship across disciplines including geography, ecology, sociology, and political ecology. Exurbia is here proposed to be strengthened as a powerful conceptual approach to capture and discuss the complex processes producing this phenomenon. Previous scholarship has produced excellent but largely disconnected work on the periurban zone around cities, exurban settlement processes, tensions between exurbanites and other rural residents, environmental impacts and habitat fragmentation. Future work on exurbia holds a great deal of promise to think about cultural values supporting the processes that produce these landscapes, working across scales from local to global using interdisciplinary and multi-method study.     

Using Soil Magnetic Properties to Determine the Onset of Pleistocene Human Settlement at Gledswood Shelter 1, Northern Australia

In regions that lack built structures or stratified open archaeological sites, such as precolonial Australia, rockshelters are a major source of detailed information for understanding the nature and timing of human occupation. A key concern is that the proposed ages for the earliest archaeological sites are based on luminescence dating of sediments, rather than directly of cultural materials, leaving the association between the sediments and evidence of human activity questionable. Here, we present evidence of magnetic enhancement associated with cultural horizons within the deposits of a Pleistocene rockshelter in interior northern Queensland. Soil magnetic studies combined with experimental burning show that magnetically enhanced sediments in Gledswood Shelter 1 are the result of anthropogenic burning of hearth fires, which burn hotter and for a longer time than natural wild fires. These techniques appear to work in this setting because of the nature of the local geology and the geological antiquity of the landscape. Susceptibility and frequency dependence of susceptibility signatures provide a critical tool to resolve that human occupation starts at 2.2 m depth within a stratigraphic section. In conjunction with luminescence dating, soil magnetic studies provide an opportunity for archaeologists to resolve the timing of human settlement in Australia and other intracratonic plate settings.     

意大利撒丁岛中部Lasasai-Bonucoro地区的废弃露天滑石-绿泥石-长石采矿场的水资源及其修复模式

摘要在撒丁岛中部Orani地区，一些赋存在古生代变质岩和花岗岩中的滑石．绿泥石．长石矿体一直处于露天开采状态。采矿活动严重破坏了Lasasai-Bonucoro地区的原始景观。露天开矿形成了一些水坑，里面填满了来自含水层的沿断裂渗出水，因此对该地区的重整应被视作是对自然景观的全面修复工程。在本次工作的第一阶段，作者描述了环境和水文地质学特征，以及根据不同整治措施对不同地域进行了划分。随后的工作包括详细地解释不同的整治技术措施。为了使该地区复原，首要措施包括：1)对一些地形崎岖的地点进行平整改造和重新规划。也就是根据前期规划合适的地点，将矿石开采和堆存地中过多的废石搬走并回填到山谷中。2)修复被挪走的土壤植被，并且在完成污水处理之后，通过植被重植的方法(包括：移植土壤和养分、水流播种草本植物，阶段性机械洒水)对新形成的地表进行改造。3)并通过以上重植技术，修复恰当的斜坡以及总体缺乏植被的地表。以上措施会引起地表高度和地形的微小变化。可是这些措施足以形成一个新的环境条件，可进行新的开采。特定情况下，例如在有恒定的高品质水流，并且环境宜人的乡村，以上建议很容易实施。因而，Lasasai-Boalitynucoro地区的资源的可利用性至少包括以下互不相斥的两个方面：1)休闲胜地，2)矿泉水生产基地。通过以上方法，Lasasai-Bonucoro地区的环境修复将会产生新的经济、文化、娱乐和观光价值。     

Palaeoecological,archaeological and historical data and the making of Devon landscapes. I. The Blackdown Hills

This paper presents the first systematic study of the vegetation history of a range of low hills in SW England, UK, lying between more researched fenlands and uplands. After the palaeoecological sites were located bespoke archaeological, historical and documentary studies of the surrounding landscape were undertaken specifically to inform palynological interpretation at each site. The region has a distinctive archaeology with late Mesolithic tool scatters, some evidence of early Neolithic agriculture, many Bronze Age funerary monuments and Romano‐British iron‐working. Historical studies have suggested that the present landscape pattern is largely early Medieval. However, the pollen evidence suggests a significantly different Holocene vegetation history in comparison with other areas in lowland England, with evidence of incomplete forest clearance in later‐Prehistory (Bronze?Iron Age). Woodland persistence on steep, but poorly drained, slopes, was probably due to the unsuitability of these areas for mixed farming. Instead they may have been under woodland management (e.g. coppicing) associated with the iron‐working industry. Data from two of the sites also suggest that later Iron Age and Romano‐British impact may have been geographically restricted. The documented Medieval land management that maintained the patchwork of small fields, woods and heathlands had its origins in later Prehistory, but there is also evidence of landscape change in the 6th–9th centuries AD. We conclude that the Blackdown Hills area was one of many ‘distinctive subregions’, which due to a combination of edaphic, topographic and cultural factors could qualify as an eco‐cultural region or ‘pays’. It is argued that the use of such eco‐culturally distinctive regions or pays can provide a spatial and archaeological framework for palaeoecology, which has implications for landscape research, designation and heritage management.     

A multiple profile approach to the palynological reconstruction of Norse landscapes in Greenland's Eastern Settlement

Palynological research is increasingly revealing the landscape impacts of Norse colonisation in southern Greenland. Typically, although not exclusively, these studies are from depositional environments with highly localised pollen source areas close to fjord-side centres of medieval power. In contrast, this paper presents data from Vatnahverfi, an inland district of the Eastern Settlement, and explores the emergence of a cultural landscape through three pollen sequences at variable distances from Norse farms. Two are from mires with small pollen source areas close to (< 100 m) and distant from (≥ 1500 m) probable farming activities. The other provides a more regional signal of vegetation change, albeit one located close to a Norse settlement. Landnám is marked primarily through an increase in microscopic charcoal and the appearance of pollen from Rumex acetosella, although significant differences between profiles are noted. Close to Norse ruins, pollen productivity from grassland communities increases and woodland and scrub representation declines. Further from archaeological remains, palynologically inferred human activity is primarily characterised by decreased productivity, notably declining influx from woodland and scrub species, reflecting grazing herbivores or coppicing. Abandonment of Vatnahverfi is indicated from the late 14th to early 15th century AD.     

Late survival of woodland contrasts with rapid limnological changes following settlement at Kalmanstjörn,Mývatnssveit,northeast Iceland

The settlement of Iceland is known to have had profound impacts on vegetation and landscape stability, but there remain uncertainties around the spatial variability and timing of environmental change, and the impacts of settlement on aquatic ecosystems. Here a new multiproxy palaeoenvironmental reconstruction spanning the last 3000 years is presented from Kalmanstjörn, a small lake in Mývatnssveit, northeast Iceland. Sedimentology, pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs, and geochemical proxies, dated using tephrochronology, are used to reconstruct terrestrial vegetation, landscape stability and aquatic ecosystems. The data reveal complex environmental dynamics after settlement. At this site, substantial tree populations persisted until the late 15th century, in strong contrast to the rapid deforestation shown by almost all other records from Iceland. The eventual loss of woodland may have been caused by changes in direct human activity and the location of extensive grazing, in combination with Little Ice Age climatic cooling. The loss of woodland was accompanied by increased soil erosion. Conversely, the lake ecosystem showed an immediate response to settlement, becoming more productive for several centuries, perhaps in response to increased availability of nutrients from grazing herbivores. The late persistence of woodland in the Kalmanstjörn record adds to our understanding of the spatial variations in ecosystem responses to settlement in Iceland, while the evidence for decoupling of the aquatic and terrestrial systems suggests that palaeolimnological reconstructions focusing on aquatic ecosystem responses may be important new sources of information on the wider ecological consequences of human settlement.     

The spatial organization of services in new land settlement: experiences and trends

Conclusion Despite its uniqueness, the vitality inherent in the rural structure of Israel is of particular interest to other developing regions with a predominant rural-agricultural population. Latin American countries, for example, are investing considerable resources in the development of new lands through construction of penetration roads and other infrastructure. Several countries have created regional development authorities; some have policies designed to attract private investments into virgin areas.¹³⁾ The general emphasis tends increasingly toward state-initiated and planned settlement, often in conjuction with agrarian reform programs — an approach dictated both by economic efficiency and welfare criteria.Past experience has shown that the rural population has to be organized in viable communities in order to become amenable to economic and cultural integration. Communities must likewise be spatially organized in an optimal way that will make it possible to provide them with amenities and so direct their production for the purpose of achieving economic status. At the same time, maximum flexibility must be preserved to fit varying developmental stages, since physical plans once carried into effect are extremely difficult to modify.In order to reduce the social and economic pull of existing urban centers it may be advisable to develop new settlement areas as self-sufficient enclaves, independent to some extent from the facilities existing in the region. The settlements would share the national infrastructure of communications and public services, but would gear their production to regional as well as extra-regional demand, bypassing the traditional local market place. Then, as the new communities consolidate as social and economic entities, the options for collaboration or competition with existing central places can be laid open on a more equitable basis.Admittedly such sheltered development may affect the role of the local intermediary and lessen the commercial activities of the urban sector, but it would also stimulate the development of an independent framework of handling, marketing, and an increasing degree of processing the settlements' produce. These complementary activities would help to retain part of the added value of the production and generate new sources of employment for successive village generations. The delay in the growth for the region's total output may well be worthwhile for achieving that social and economic transformation which in turn may lead to a more balance and sustained development of the entire region.¹⁴⁾     

Man and tropical karst in Southeast Asia

Some karst regions of Indonesia (Java, Sulawesi, Bali, Madura), on closer examination geomorphologically and hydro-geologically quite distinct from each other, are checked with regard to land-use, settlement and other economic and cultural significance. Brief comparisons are made to similar regions from the Philippines (Bohol), Thailand etc.An amazingly strong differentiation, especially of the rice-cultivation systems, is determined by the varying access to water. Some densely populated limestone regions are suffering even from critical water supply for human consumption, cattle etc. Proposals for improvement and rural development are given.The comparison of agricultural landscape types under changing geo-ecological conditions yield fine examples of closely interwoven man-earth eco-systems.     

Holocene alluviation and land-use change on Callaly Moor,Northumberland, England

Archaeological survey and palaeoenvironmental investigations in Coe Burn, Callaly Moor, Northumberland, have examined the chronology and nature of prehistoric and historic land-use change in a small upland river catchment. These studies have revealed an intensively used landscape with evidence of late Neolithic to Bronze Age, medieval and post-medieval land use and settlement. Two episodes of valley floor alluviation are identified and dated to the middle-late Bronze Age and post-medieval periods. Magnetic mineral and geochemical analyses of fine sediments from the older alluvial fill show it to contain a high proportion of topsoil, which is believed to have been produced by soil erosion resulting from Bronze Age tree clearance and cultivation. Deposition of the younger alluvial fill (post AD 1500) was associated with the inwash of relatively unweathered bedrock generated by coal mining in the catchment. It is demonstrated that by integrating archaeological field survey with off-site palaeoenvironmental investigations a much fuller picture of human activity and land-use change has emerged than otherwise would have been the case. Studies of this type may be particularly useful in other upland river catchments where archaeological survival is limited or poor.     

Ethnically mixed marriages in the Soviet Union

Some karst regions of Indonesia (Java, Sulawesi, Bali, Madura), on closer examination geomorphologically and hydro-geologically quite distinct from each other, are checked with regard to land-use, settlement and other economic and cultural significance. Brief comparisons are made to similar regions from the Philippines (Bohol), Thailand etc. An amazingly strong differentiation, especially of the rice-cultivation systems, is determined by the varying access to water. Some densely populated limestone regions are suffering even from critical water supply for human consumption, cattle etc. Proposals for improvement and rural development are given. The comparison of agricultural landscape types under changing geo-ecological conditions yield fine examples of closely interwoven man-earth eco-systems.     

Environmental constraints of human settlement in an evolving holocene alluvial system,the lower Mississippi valley

The lower Mississippi River has aggraded throughout the Holocene, resulting in stratification of cultural materials. Determination of this landscape evolution adds a temporal dimension to a model of human settlement. Sites most likely to be settled are high, well-drained surfaces near a stream. In the middle Holocene, conditions began to be suitable for settlement near Big Lake, Arkansas. A stream developed on the flood plain adjacent to a braided stream terrace. Flooding of the terrace formed a natural levee composed of well-drained, fertile, loam that was better suited for agriculture, if it existed at this time, and a living substrate than terrace sand to the west and backswamp clay to the east. Water and aquatic food sources were nearby. Open swamp conditions, present during middle Holocene, diminished by Late Holocene as bottomland arboreal habitats were becoming reestablished. This ideal environment has been intensely exploited for the past 3000 years, despite the temporary inconvenience of flooding.     

Foundation settlement statistics via finite element analysis

The dispersion observed in soil data comes both from the spatial variability which greatly influences the behavior of large structures and from errors in testing. Thus, the geotechnical engineering deals with uncertainties for which deterministic approaches are not suitable. The resort to probabilistic techniques, enables modeling uncertainties by analyzing their dispersion effect on the global behavior of the structure. The scope of this paper is analyzing settlement and differential settlement variability of a pair of foundations on random heterogeneous medium. The random soil properties of interest are the elastic modulus, and the Poisson ratio. The elastic modulus is modeled as a spatially random field by adopting the lognormal distribution, which enables analyzing its large variability. Because soil Poisson ratio is bounded in practice between two extreme values, its random field is obtained by using the Beta distribution. In this study, one proposes for the Beta field determination, a mapping technique on the probability distribution function diagram, by solving a non-linear equation. However, the mean and variance are unchanged through the mapping operation. Because the soil Poisson ratio is a positive parameter, one prefers to perform the mapping operation with the probability function of the lognormal distribution. Also, the proposed technique can be used for other bounded soil properties such as the porosity. In this paper, settlement and differential settlement statistics prediction are carried out using Monte Carlo simulations combined with deterministic finite element method (DFEM). A performed parametric study shows the following: (i) as the variability of the elastic modulus increases as settlement and differential settlement statistics are important, also, settlement statistics decreases as the Poisson ratio variability increases, and differential settlement statistics do not seem be affected by its variability. (ii) settlement and differential settlement statistics are important for positive inter-property correlation. (iii) a great influence of the correlation lengths on settlement and differential settlement statistics.