LAND‐USE DYNAMICS BEYOND THE AMERICAN URBAN FRINGE*

ABSTRACT. A deficiency common to both the historical debates over loss of agricultural land and the current discussions of urbanization and sprawl is a limited understanding of land‐use dynamics beyond the urban fringe. Data aggregated at the county level poorly capture the fine‐grained pattern of land‐use change beyond the dynamic urban‐rural interface. Furthermore, current urban‐based definitions are poorly suited to delineate these areas, and low‐density, exurban land use is difficult to measure using existing land‐cover databases. Urbanization and the conversion of once‐agricultural or other natural resource lands to other uses has traditionally been tracked using urban areas, as delimited in the U.S. census. Urban densities are typically defined as areas with more than 1,000 people per square mile, or 1.6 people per acre (U.S. Census Bureau 2000). Assuming an average of 2.5 people per housing unit, this translates to roughly 0.7 units per acre, or approximately 1 unit per 1.6 acres. The analytical units used in the census, however, both overbound and underbound areas with urban densities. About one‐third of urban areas in 1990 comprised lower‐than‐urban housing density, thanks to overbounding. But, then, one‐third of locations that had urban‐level housing densities failed to be included in urban areas as a result of underbounding, which, if counted, would have constituted another 18 million acres of urban area. An increase over time of the average number of acres required per housing unit in exurban and higher‐density locations occurred in roughly one‐third of U.S. counties from 1960 to 1990 and persisted from 1990 to 2000. In 2000 roughly 38 million acres were settled at urban densities, and nearly ten times that much land was settled at rates from low, exurban density (as low as one house per 40 acres) to higher rates (up to one per 10 acres). This represents a continuing encroachment on land previously given over to other uses—habitat or agriculture. Practitioners of natural resource management need to recognize the ubiquity of exurban development and better incorporate the fine‐scale patterns of land use beyond the urban fringe.     

FARMLAND CONVERSION: NATIONAL LESSONS FOR IOWA*

Between 1967 and 1975, United States cropland declined 30.5 million acres, of which 8 million acres were prime farmland. The rising gross farm product continues to outweigh such losses owing to short-term adjustments such as irrigation, but longer-term measures to conserve farmland are widely urged. Even Iowa, where urban growth is modest, is incurring some loss of superior farmland. Experience in other states offers certain lessons to Iowa: discourage unnecessary municipal annexations; evaluate the impact of public investments on farmland; expand tax preferences for agriculture; and assist counties to improve their land planning and regulatory efforts.     

生态退耕对中国农田生产力的影响(英文)

The changes in cropland quantity and quality due to land use are critical concerns to national food security, particularly for China. Despite the significant ecological effects, the ecological restoration program (ERP), started from 1999, has evidently altered the spatial patterns of China’s cropland and agricultural productivity. Based on cropland dynamic data from 2000 to 2008 primarily derived from satellite images with a 30-m resolution and satellite-based net primary productivity models, we identified the impacts on agricultural productivity caused by ERP, including "Grain for Green" Program (GFGP) and "Reclaimed Cropland to Lake" (RCTL) Program. Our results indicated that the agricultural productivity lost with a rate of 132.67×104 t/a due to ERP, which accounted for 44.01% of the total loss rate caused by land use changes during 2000-2005. During 2005-2008, the loss rate due to ERP decreased to 77.18×104 t/a, which was equivalent to 58.17% of that in the first five years and 30.22% of the total loss rate caused by land use changes. The agricultural productivity loss from 2000-2008 caused by ERP was more attributed to GFGP (about 70%) than RCTL. Although ERP had a certain influence on cropland productivity during 2000-2008, its effect was still much less than that of urbanization; moreover, ERP was already converted from the project implementation phase to the consolidation phase.     

过去2000年中国农耕区拓展与垦殖率变化基本特征

通过梳理和集成近年研究成果,综述了过去2000年中国主要农耕区拓展的阶段性及其间全国耕地面积和其中近千年垦殖率变化的主要特征.主要结论有:①中国主要农耕区第一次大规模拓展出现在西汉,从黄河中下游拓至整个长江以北地区;第二次在唐宋时期,主要是长江以南农耕区域从平原低地拓垦至丘陵山地;第三次在清中叶以后,主要是对东北、西北...     

北宋中期耕地面积及其空间分布格局重建(英文)

To understand historical human-induced land cover change and its climatic effects, it is necessary to create historical land use datasets with explicit spatial information. Using the taxes-cropland area and number of families compiled from historical documents, we esti-mated the real cropland area and populations within each Lu (a province-level political region in the Northern Song Dynasty) in the mid-Northern Song Dynasty (AD1004-1085). The es-timations were accomplished through analyzing the contemporary policies of tax, population and agricultural development. Then, we converted the political region-based cropland area to geographically explicit grid cell-based fractional cropland at the cell size of 60 km by 60 km. The conversion was based on calculating cultivation suitability of each grid cell using the topographic slope, altitude and population density as the independent variables. As a result, the total area of cropland within the Northern Song territory in the 1070s was estimated to be about 720 million mu (Chinese area unit, 1 mu = 666.7 m2), of which 40.1% and 59.9% oc-curred in the north and south respectively. The population was estimated to be about 87.2 million, of which 38.7% and 61.3% were in the north and south respectively, and per capita cropland area was about 8.2 mu. The national mean reclamation ratio (i.e. ratio of cropland area to total land area; RRA hereafter for short) was bout 16.6%. The plain areas, such as the North China Plain, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Guanzhong Plain, plains surrounding the Dongting Lake and Poyang Lake and Sichuan Basin, had a higher RRA, being mostly over 40%; while the hilly and mountainous areas, such as south of Nanling Mountains, the southwest regions (excluding the Chengdu Plain), Loess Plateau and south-east coastal regions, had a lower RRA, being less than 20%. Moreover, RRA varied with topographic slope and altitude. In the areas of low altitude (≤250 m), middle altitude (250-100 m) and high altitude (1000-3500 m), there were 443 million, 215 million and 64 million mu of cropland respectively and their regional mean RRAs were 27.5%, 12.6% and 7.2% respectively. In the areas of flat slope, gentle slope, medium slope and steep slope, there were 116 million, 456 million, 144 million and 2 million mu of cropland respectively and their regional mean RRAs were 34.6%, 20.7%, 8.5% and 2.3% respectively.     

1992-2017年基于荟萃分析的中国耕地撂荒时空特征

当前耕地撂荒已成为一种日益普遍的土地利用变化现象,对粮食安全和生态环境具有重要影响。为揭示1992-2017年中国耕地撂荒的时空特征及驱动机制,采用集成分析的思路,对县（市）域尺度撂荒的研究成果进行了汇总梳理,从中提取撂荒时间、位置、规模（程度）、成因等信息,并进行了荟萃分析。结果发现：1992-2017年全国范围内有撂荒记录的县（市）共165个,主要分布于南方,集中分布区呈逆时针旋转90°的“T”字型,纵轴自北至南贯穿甘肃东南部、四川东部、重庆境内,直至贵州西部和云南北部;横轴位于长江中下游地区,自西向东贯穿湖北、湖南、安徽、江西。其中,湖南、四川、安徽有撂荒记录的县（市）数量较多,分别为24个、23个、21个,其次是湖北、重庆、福建、甘肃、云南,均超过10个。“T”字型结构的形成经历两个阶段,大致以2010年为界,此前有撂荒记录的县（市）为102个,集中分布于沿长江中下游的东西向带状区域,形成横轴;此后新增63个县（市）,集中分布于自甘肃东南部至贵州西部和云南北部地区的南北向带状区域,形成纵轴。撂荒格局的形成过程与区域经济发展和产业结构调整背景下的农业劳动力析出基本同步。农业收益低和劳动力不足分别是86%和78%的县（市）撂荒形成的共性因素。     

北宋路域耕地面积重建及时空特征分析

基于垦田和户口史料及耕地分布影响因子的分析,本文建立了北宋册载垦田数据的订正方法以及路域耕地分布倾向模型和分配模型,重建了北宋4个时点的路域耕地面积。结果表明：① 北宋开宝九年（976年）、至道三年（997年）、治平三年（1066年）和元丰元年（1078年）的耕地总量分别为468.27×10⁶今亩、495.53×10⁶今亩、697.65×10⁶今亩和731.94×10⁶今亩,百年间耕地面积增加了约2.64亿今亩;垦殖率从开宝九年（976年）的10.8%,增加至元丰元年（1078年）的16.9%,提高了约6个百分点;而人均耕地面积由15.7今亩降至8.4今亩。② 从空间变化特征看,东南地区是北宋土地垦殖发展最快的地区,土地垦殖率增加了约12.0%,北宋中期长江中下游平原局部地区垦殖率高达40%;其次是北方地区,土地垦殖率增加了5.2%,北宋中期黄淮海平原的土地垦殖率也超过了20%;西南地区农业发展相对落后,区域土地垦殖率仅增加1.2%,除成都府路外,各路垦殖率均低于6%。③ 从评估结果看,本文所构建的路域耕地分配模型具有一定的可行性,相对误差绝对值小于20%的路域占总路数的84.2%,结果能较好地反映北宋时期路域耕地面积的时空变化特征。     

城市化和退耕还林草对中国耕地生产力的影响

20 世纪90 年代以来的快速城市化进程和1999 年开始启动的退耕还林草生态工程对耕地的分布与生产能力产生了重要影响。本研究应用由TM 遥感影像获取的1980s-2000 年与2000-2005 年两个时间段耕地变化数据,结合以多时相遥感数据为主要数据源的耕地生产力光能利用率遥感模型估算两个研究时段耕地生产力变化特征,比较城市化与退耕还林草政策主导下两个时期耕地转移对各区域耕地生产力的影响。研究结果表明:两个研究时段因城市占用损失的耕地生产力占土地利用变化(LUCC) 导致的耕地生产力减少总量比例均在60%以上。在20 世纪90 年代,全国新增耕地生产力总量比被占用耕地生产力高87%,耕地转移使中国耕地生产力增加。2000-2005 年间,退耕还林草政策的启动和快速城市化进程对耕地的持续占用导致耕地生产力占补正平衡指数由前一时段的正平衡变为负平衡,转出耕地生产力总量比新增耕地生产力高31%,耕地转为林草地和建设占用损失的耕地生产力分别较前一时段提高57%和85%。城市化与退耕还林草政策等驱动因素作用下耕地开垦区与占用区的空间分布差异使得耕地生产力占补平衡状态和趋势呈现明显的区域分异。     

近10年来中国耕地资源的时空变化分析

根据中国资源环境数据库中的耕地数据以及20世纪80年代末期、1995年和2000年3期覆盖全国时间跨度约为10年的遥感数据,对中国耕地时空变化进行分析。总趋势表明,近10年来我国耕地资源总量有所增加;东部及沿海地区优质耕地迅速减少;东北地区和内蒙古自治区耕地大量开垦;水田旱地转换明显。利用GIS方法将耕地变化数据与中国生态环境质量数据进行叠加,表明近10年来耕地的生态环境质量下降了。近10年耕地动态变化的空间分布表现出13种动态格局。对80年代末至1995年 (前5年) 和1995年至2000年 (后5年) 这2个时间段内的耕地变化进行对比分析,表明了前5年与后5年耕地变化的动态格局有空间上的相似性,但前后变化幅度相差较明显。近10年来气温的升高与中国水田北移有较好的一致性,而降水的减少对西北地区耕地的撂荒和开垦有明显作用。中国经济的发展所导致的城市化过程使得大量耕地被占用。近10年来相关的耕地政策对控制耕地面积的减少有作用,但耕地的总体质量却下降了,这直接影响了粮食产量。     

三江平原近50年耕地面积动态变化序列重建

基于1950-2000年三江平原23个县市和3个农垦管理局耕地面积的统计数据,利用空间插值和线性时间内插方法对统计缺失数据进行插补,重建其50年耕地面积时空变化序列。重建的耕地面积变化序列显示,1950年该区域耕地面积仅有88.7万hm2,到2000年增至269.6万hm2,增加了203.9%,除20世纪60年代后期外,该区域耕地基本表现为持续增加。在空间变化方面,近50年三江平原耕地面积增加的重心表现为由早期的平原西部逐渐向中东部转移。耕地面积变化的主要原因在于该区域3个农垦管理局所辖的农场对自然湿地的大规模垦殖,其108.8万hm2的耕地面积几乎全部源于近50年的湿地垦殖。     

SPECIALTY CROPLAND IN CALIFORNIA*

ABSTRACT. Census data do not support the widespread popular perception that urban encroachment on cropland in California is serious enough to justify programs of farmland preservation. Between 1949 and 1997 the acreage of harvested cropland declined near Los Angeles, in the San Francisco Bay area, and near Sacramento, but the high‐value specialty agricultural production displaced from these areas has been relocated to more distant areas, where it has replaced lower‐value field crops, and specialized agricultural production has increased steadily in the state. Vegetable production in the Salinas Valley and dairying near Los Angeles illustrate the twin processes of relocation and replacement. Urban encroachment actually has been a boon to California agriculture, because it has transferred massive amounts of urban capital to cash‐strapped farmers and enabled them to develop efficient modern operations. Much of the concern about loss of farmland really is concern about loss of open space and amenities, and urban demand for water probably will be a greater constraint on California agriculture than will urban demand for land.     

中国山区经济发展差异与非农产业的贡献

以地区 (市) 作为基本研究单元,选取大小兴安岭、燕山、太行山区、沂蒙山区、武陵山区、东南丘陵、喀斯特山区、横断山区、祁连山区等具有典型性的中国山区,定量分析2000年中国山区经济发展态势以及影响和制约山区经济发展的深层次因素,并与平原地区和经济发达地区进行宏观、中观层面上的多方位对比分析。结果显示: 中国山区人均GDP的区域变化特征与山区非农产业人均增加值发展态势呈正相关;各类山区农业产业人均增加值表现为一条无差异曲线,即山区居民家庭收入的差距,主要来自非农产业,农业产业收入退于次要地位,非农产业人均增加值决定中国山区的经济发展的空间分异。     

北宋路域耕地面积重建(英文)

Based on data on taxed-cropland area and on the number of households in historical documents, a probabilistic model of cropland distribution and a cropland area allocation model were designed and validated. Cropland areas for the years AD976, 997, 1066, and 1078 were estimated at the level of Lu(an administrative region of the Northern Song Dynasty). The results indicated that(1) the cropland area of the whole study region for AD976, 997, 1066, and 1078 was about 468.27 million mu(a Chinese unit of area, with1 mu=666.7m2), 495.53 million mu, 697.65 million mu, and 731.94 million mu, respectively. The fractional cropland area(FCA) increased from 10.7% to 16.8%, and the per capita cropland area decreased from 15.7 mu to 8.4 mu.(2) With regard to the cropland spatial pattern, the FCA of the southeast, north, and southwest regions of the Northern Song territory increased by 12.0%, 5.2%, and 1.2%, respectively. The FCA of some regions in the Yangtze River Plain increased to greater than 40%, and the FCA of the North China Plain increased to greater than 20%. However, the FCA of the southwest region(except for the Chengdu Plain) in the Northern Song territory was less than 6%.(3) There were 84.2% Lus whose absolute relative error was smaller than 20% in the mid Northern Song Dynasty. The validation results indicate that our models are reasonable and that the results of reconstruction are credible.     

论广东省实施生态移民政策的必要性与现实性

广东欠发达地区多属于生态敏感或脆弱地区,其发展受生态环境因素的制约特别明显,同时这些地区又是全省的生态屏障,加强保护,发挥其生态功能不仅有利于当地的可持续发展,也是全省可持续发展的重要保障.为了有效推进广东省区域协调发展战略的实施,缓解山区面临的不断增长的生态压力,建议实行生态移民政策,根据区域生态环境的承受能力控制人口密度,通过市场化的办法将部分人口转移到城镇.     

中国农田生产力变化的空间格局及地形控制作用

中国政府高度重视粮食安全, 采取一系列措施提高粮食生产并取得了一定的成效, 但是20 世纪90 年代全球农业生产徘徊不前并不仅是一种由特定政策或市场因素导致的短期现象。因此, 认识在长时间尺度上农田生产力变化的特征及其控制因素对保障国家粮食安全、制定农业政策及调节生态系统服务功能具有重要意义, 研究稳定少动但对农田生产力形成有 重要影响的地形因子对农田生产力变化的作用是其中的一项重要内容。生态系统生产力遥感 机理模型能够清晰地表达国家尺度农田生产力的时空格局, 应用1981~2000 年的NOAA/AVHRR 卫星遥感数据驱动GLO-PEM 模型, 以10 年为时间尺度分析20 世纪80 年代 到90 年代农田生产力变化的空间格局特征。研究结果表明, 在10 年的时间尺度上, 地形特征控制着农田生产力变化空间格局分异规律, 农田生产力降低的几率随地形起伏度增大而增加, 山区耕地发生生产力下降的可能性比平原耕地高10%~30%。在研究时期内尽管中国农田生产力总量增加, 但仍有24%的农田发生农田生产力下降, 其中71%在丘陵山地, 尤其是地形起伏破碎的黄土高原及云贵高原地区。     

西藏自治区农牧民收入结构分析

依据入户调查资料 ,文章重点分析了现阶段西藏农牧民的收入结构 ,包括收入来源、收入性质、现金收入等内容 ,探索了不同地区 (农区、牧区、半农半牧区、一江两河农业开发区、城郊区等 )及不同收入段农牧民收入结构和收入来源的差异。通过分析发现西藏农牧民收入有以下特征 :①收入以实物为主 ,现金收入和可支配收入少 ;②城郊区农牧民收入多样化指数高 ,农牧民收入高 ,收入多样化指数与农牧民收入正相关 ;③低收入农户收入来源单一 ,抗风险能力弱 ,收入增加困难 ;④从生活质量看农区优于牧区 ,半农半牧区农牧民生活质量最差 ;⑤影响农牧民人均收入的主要因子为人均生产性投入、区域通达度等。     

广东省台风灾害经济损失风险评估

广东省是我国的经济大省,频繁遭受台风侵袭,造成巨大的经济损失,进行区域台风灾害经济损失风险的定量评估在制定防灾减灾措施方面具有重要的理论意义.本文通过1954-2008年间全国台风灾情数据与台风强度等级构建直接经济损失率曲线,采用GIS空间分析方法,计算广东全省98个县域单元不同强度等级台风经济脆弱性,在计算不同强度等级台风登陆广东的频次基础上,确定不同强度等级台风发生可能性,最终采用风险评估模型,对不同强度等级台风造成的广东省经济损失风险进行定量评估.评估结果表明:广东台风灾害造成的经济损失风险在百亿元以上,微度、轻度、中度和重度分别达到104.67、144.29、77.53和135.91亿元.空间上表现为珠三角地区的广州市、东莞市、深圳市、中山市、珠海市风险最高,从珠江入海口地区向内地呈辐射状减弱,内陆远离海岸线的县市风险值最低,不足0.50亿元,随着台风强度由微度到中度增强,粤西风险高于粤东,当达到重度时,表现为粤东沿海高于粤西沿海的格局.     

基于GIS的新疆棉花生产发展时空变异分析

在新疆棉花生产统计数据库建立的基础上 ,利用地理信息系统工具软件ArcView制作新疆历年棉花播种面积、单产和总产分布图 ,并以 1 980、1 985、1 990和 1 995年为例对新疆棉花生产的时间和空间分布进行分析 ,同时还分析了 1 997年棉花播种面积占耕地面积和总作物播种面积的比率分布。进入 90年代后新疆棉花生产发展迅速 ,播种面积、单产和总产都有大幅度增加 ,1 995年总产达到 30× 1 0 5t以上的县有莎车、阿克苏、沙雅、阿瓦提、麦盖提、巴楚 6县 ,主产区主要分布在南疆的库尔勒 -阿克苏 -莎车和北疆的昌吉 -博乐沿线各县 ,1 997年已有 1 4个县棉田面积占耕地面积的比率大于 5 0 %。新疆棉花生产已达到一定的规模 ,宜在稳定中求发展 ,注意防止规划和管理不善可能造成的土地退化 ,以保障农业生产持续发展。     

黄土高原地区乡村性空间特征及其与可达性格局关系

在乡村转型重构的关键时期以及城乡融合背景下,可达性作为驱动乡村地域特征改变的直接媒介,对乡村减贫及可持续发展产生重要影响。以县域为基本空间单元,构建了刻画乡村性和可达性的指标体系,定量测度了1990年、2000年、2010年、2015年黄土高原地区243个县域乡村性与可达性指数,探索黄土高原地区县域乡村性和可达性的时空演变特征,采用探索性空间数据方法,引入空间计量经济模型,对乡村性与可达性的集聚特征及关系进行计量分析。结果显示:①研究区乡村性整体呈减弱态势、差异不断增大,呈现"西高东低"分布格局;可达性整体呈增强趋势、差异不断缩小,"东高西低"的分布格局基本不变。②乡村性与可达性空间分布均呈较强的正空间自相关,以"榆林-庆阳"一线为界分布,但集聚态势总体不断减弱;其次,可达性的提升对乡村性呈负向影响且波动增强,低可达性-高乡村性类型主要分布在西北的青海、甘肃、宁夏境内,高可达性-低乡村性类型主要分布在东部经济发展水平较高的地级市周边县市。③乡村性的空间溢出效应显著,表现出显著的空间滞后和空间误差溢出效应,区域乡村性会受到周边地区乡村性的显著影响;可达性的提升会使得乡村人口变化率、一产产...     

Estimated Sand and Gravel Resources of the South Merrimack, Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, 7.5-Minute Quadrangle

A computer methodology is presented that allows natural aggregate producers, local governmental, and nongovernmental planners to define specific locations that may have sand and gravel deposits meeting user-specified minimum size, thickness, and geographic and geologic criteria, in areas where the surficial geology has been mapped. As an example, the surficial geologic map of the South Merrimack quadrangle was digitized and several digital geographic information system databases were downloaded from the internet and used to estimate the sand and gravel resources in the quadrangle. More than 41 percent of the South Merrimack quadrangle has been mapped as having sand and (or) gravel deposited by glacial meltwaters. These glaciofluvial areas are estimated to contain a total of 10 million m³ of material mapped as gravel, 60 million m³ of material mapped as mixed sand and gravel, and another 50 million m³ of material mapped as sand with minor silt. The mean thickness of these areas is about 1.95 meters. Twenty tracts were selected, each having individual areas of more than about 14 acres (5.67 hectares) of stratified glacial-meltwater sand and gravel deposits, at least 10-feet (3.0 m) of material above the watertable, and not sterilized by the proximity of buildings, roads, streams and other bodies of water, or railroads. The 20 tracts are estimated to contain between about 4 and 10 million short tons (st) of gravel and 20 and 30 million st of sand. The five most gravel-rich tracts contain about 71 to 82 percent of the gravel resources in all 20 tracts and about 54–56 percent of the sand. Using this methodology, and the above criteria, a group of four tracts, divided by narrow areas sterilized by a small stream and secondary roads, may have the highest potential in the quadrangle for sand and gravel resources.