Coseismic landslides triggered by the 8th August 2017 <Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>s</Subscript> 7.0 Jiuzhaigou earthquake (Sichuan,China): factors controlling their spatial distribution and implications for the seismogenic blind fault identification

On 8th August 2017, a magnitude M_s 7.0 earthquake struck the County of Jiuzhaigou, in Sichuan Province, China. It was the third M_s ≥?7.0 earthquake in the Longmenshan area in the last decade, after the 2008 M_s 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake and the 2013 M_s 7.0 Lushan earthquake. The event did not produce any evident surface rupture but triggered significant mass wasting. Based on a large set of pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution satellite images (SPOT-5, Gaofen-1 and Gaofen-2) as well as on 0.2-m-resolution UAV photographs, a polygon-based interpretation of the coseismic landslides was carried out. In total, 1883 landslides were identified, covering an area of 8.11 km², with an estimated total volume in the order of 25–30?×?10⁶ m³. The total landslide area was lower than that produced by other earthquakes of similar magnitude with strike-slip motion, possibly because of the limited surface rupture. The spatial distribution of the landslides was correlated statistically to a number of seismic, terrain and geological factors, to evaluate the landslide susceptibility at regional scale and to identify the most typical characteristics of the coseismic failures. The landslides, mainly small-scale rockfalls and rock/debris slides, occurred mostly along two NE-SW-oriented valleys near the epicentre. Comparatively, high landslide density was found at locations where the landform evolves from upper, broad valleys to lower, deep-cut gorges. The spatial distribution of the coseismic landslides did not seem correlated to the location of any known active faults. On the contrary, it revealed that a previously-unknown blind fault segment—which is possibly the north-western extension of the Huya fault—is the plausible seismogenic fault. This finding is consistent with what hypothesised on the basis of field observations and ground displacements.     

高原季节性冻土区砂土液化探讨——以阿克陶MS6.7地震为例

2016年11月25日新疆阿克陶县木吉乡发生MS6.7地震,发震构造为公格尔山拉张系北端的木吉断裂,断裂总长度超过100 km,以右旋走滑为主兼有一定的拉张分量。文章在对震区进行了初步的地震地质灾害调查,总结砂土液化和地裂缝在高原季节性冻土地区的分布及发育特点的基础上,发现:1)在研究区Ⅰ维日麻村的砂土液化主要沿原有泉眼或沿地裂缝发育,沿泉眼形成的砂土液化其喷砂锥的覆盖面积达36.1 m2,占总液化面积的60%,研究区Ⅱ布拉克村的砂土液化则主要是沿草甸的根系喷出,在地表形成大面积的最新涌水结冻特征;2)对研究区Ⅱ布拉克村地裂缝的深度进行统计,反演出区域冻土层厚度,结合探槽揭露的地层剖面,推断冻土层发生大面积地裂缝是因为地震引起冻土层下部融土层发生砂土液化导致土层变形失稳,从而使冻土层发生形变产生一系列规律性的地裂缝。     

Landslides induced by the 2017 Mw7.3 Sarpol Zahab earthquake (Iran)

Landslides are the main secondary effects of earthquakes in mountainous areas. The spatial distribution of these landslides is controlled by the local seismic ground motion and the local slope stability. While gravitational instabilities in arid and semi-arid environments are understudied, we document the landslides triggered by the Sarpol Zahab earthquake (November 12, 2017, Mw7.3, Iran/Iraq border), the largest event ever recorded in the semi-arid Zagros Mountains. An original earthquake-induced landslide inventory was derived, encompassing landslides of various sizes and velocities (from rapid disrupted rockfalls to slow-moving coherent landslides). This inventory confirms the low level of triggered landslides in semi-arid environments. It also displays clear differences in the spatial and volumetric distributions of earthquake-induced landslides, having 386 rockfalls of limited size triggered around the epicenter, and 9 giant (areas of ca. 10⁶ m²) active and ancient deep-seated landslides coseismically accelerated at locations up to 180 km from the epicenter. This unusual distant triggering is discussed and interpreted as an interaction between the earthquake source properties and the local geological conditions, emphasizing the key role of seismic ground motion variability at short spatial scales in triggering landslides. Finally, the study documents the kinematics of slow-moving ancient landslides accelerated by earthquakes, and opens up new perspectives for studying landslide triggering over short (~?1–10 years) and long-time (~?1000–10,000 years) periods.

     

Examples of geomorphologic and geological hazards in Algeria

We present three geomorphologic and geological phenomena that have occurred in Algeria in recent years: (i) the Bab El Oued mudflow on 11 November 2001, which claimed several hundred lives, (ii) a soil collapse induced by sand liquefaction triggered by the Boumerdes earthquake (M _w = 6.8) on 21 May 2003, and (iii) landslides that are threatening Constantine city, for which a hazard map is presented using a qualitative approach. We briefly describe and analyze these natural disasters, and in the first two cases propose the application of geophysical techniques such as ambient noise recordings and electrical imagery to help evaluate their extent and potential threat. Finally a landslide hazard map of Constantine is proposed.     

Spatial characteristics of landslides triggered by the 2015 M<Subscript>w</Subscript> 7.8 (Gorkha) and M<Subscript>w</Subscript> 7.3 (Dolakha) earthquakes in Nepal

High magnitude earthquakes trigger numerous landslides and their occurrences are mainly controlled by terrain parameters. We created an inventory of 15,551 landslides with a total area of 90.2 km² triggered by the 2015 M_w 7.8 (Gorkha) and M_w 7.3 (Dolakha) earthquakes in Nepal, through interpretation of very high resolution satellite images (e.g. WorldView, Pleiades, Cartosat-1 and 2, Resourcesat-2). Our spatial analysis of landslide occurrences with ground acceleration, slope, lithology and surface defomation indicated ubiquitous control of steep slope on landslides with ground acceleration as the trigger. Spatial distribution of landslides shows increasing frequency away from the Gorkha earthquake epicentre up to 130 km towards east, dropping sharply thereafter, which is an abnormal phenomenon of coseismic landslides. Landslides are laterally concentrated in three zones which matches well with the seismic rupture evolution of Gorkha earthquake, as reported through teleseismic measurements.     

四川九寨沟Ms7.0级地震滑坡应急快速评估

基于地震滑坡危险性评估的Newmark累积位移模型,利用震前获取的震区地形数据、区域地质资料,结合地震动近实时获取技术,开展了四川九寨沟M_s7.0级地震诱发滑坡的应急快速评估。地震滑坡位移分析结果表明,同震滑坡活动的中—高强度区分布在断层两侧宽约4 km的带状区域内,整体沿北西方向延伸。其中,极震区的丰雪塘、日则和干海子等城镇驻地及附近道路的滑坡强度相对较高;震前、震后影像对比表明九寨沟地震诱发的滑坡类型以浅表型碎屑流及小规模崩塌为主,且同震碎屑流多是在震前已有碎屑流的基础上进一步活动扩展而来,震后汛期泥石流隐患也不容忽视;通过典型地区滑坡位移分析结果与震前、震后影像对比,表明滑坡位移分析结果能够较好的反映同震滑坡的宏观分布特征,但在场地尺度上吻合程度欠佳,后续将通过提升岩性和地形等数据质量进行改进。研究结果可为灾情研判提供宝贵信息,对提高灾害应急救援效率具有重要意义。     

Spatial distribution analysis and susceptibility mapping of landslides triggered before and after Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake along Upper Bhote Koshi,Nepal

The 2015 Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake triggered thousands of landslides of various types scattered over a large area. In the current study, we utilized pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution satellite imagery to compile two landslide inventories before and after earthquake and prepared three landslide susceptibility maps within 404 km² area using frequency ratio (FR) model. From the study, we could map about 519 landslides including 178 pre-earthquake slides and 341 coseismic slides were identified. This study investigated the relationship between landslide occurrence and landslide causative factors, i.e., slope, aspect, altitude, plan curvature, lithology, land use, distance from streams, distance from road, distance from faults, and peak ground acceleration. The analysis showed that the majority of landslides both pre-earthquake and coseismic occurred at slope >30°, preferably in S, SE, and SW directions and within altitude ranging from 1000 to 1500 m and 1500 to 3500 m. Scatter plots between number of landslides per km^?2 (LN) and percentage of landslide area (LA) and causative factors indicate that slope is the most influencing factor followed by lithology and PGA for the landslide formation. Higher landslide susceptibility before earthquake is observed along the road and rivers, whereas landslides after earthquake are triggered at steeper slopes and at higher altitudes. Combined susceptibility map indicates the effect of topography, geology, and land cover in the triggering of landslides in the entire basin. The resultant landslide susceptibility maps are verified through AUC showing success rates of 78, 81, and 77%, respectively. These susceptibility maps are helpful for engineers and planners for future development work in the landslide prone area.     

Characteristics of landslides in western Colorado,USA

Mass movement can be activated by earthquakes, rapid snowmelt, or intense rainstorms in conjunction with gravity. Whereas mass movement plays a major role in the evolution of a hillslope by modifying slope morphology and transporting material from the slope to the valley, it is also a potential natural hazard. Determining the relationships of frequency and magnitude of landslides are fundamental to understanding the role of landslides in the study of landscape evolution, hazard assessment, and determination of the rate of hillslope denudation. We mapped 735 shallow and active landslides in the Paonia to McClure Pass area of western Colorado from aerial photographs and field surveys. The study area covers ～815 km². The frequency–magnitude relationships of the landslides illustrate the flux of debris by mass movement in the area. The comparison of the probability density of the landslides with the double Pareto curve, defined by power scaling for negative slope (α), power scaling for positive slope (β), and location of rollover (t), shows that α?=?1.1, β?=?1.9, and t?=?1,600 m² for areas of landslides and α?=?1.15, β?=?1.8, and t?=?1,900 m³ for volumes of landslides. The total area of landslides is 4.8?×?10⁶ m² and the total volume of the landslides is 1.4?×?10⁷ m³. The areas (A) and the volumes (V) of landslides are related by V?=?0.0254?×?A ^1.45. The frequency–magnitude analysis shows that landslides with areas ranging in size from 1,600 to 20,000 m² are the most hazardous landslides in the study area. These landslides are the most frequent and also do a significant amount of geomorphic work. We also developed a conceptual model of hillslope development to upland plateau driven by river incision, shallow landsliding, and deep-seated large landsliding. The gentle slope to flat upland plateau that dominated the Quaternary landscape of the study area was modified to the present steep and rugged topography by the combined action of fluvial incision and glacial processes in response to rock uplift, very-frequent shallow landsliding, and less-frequent deep-seated landsliding.     

Trenching exposures of the surface rupture of 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake,China: Implications for coseismic deformation and paleoseismology along the Central Longmen Shan thrust fault

The May 12, 2008, Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake was induced by failure of two of the major faults of the Longmen Shan thrust fault zone along the eastern margin of Tibet Plateau. Our study focused on trenches across the Yingxiu–Bichuan fault, the central fault in the Longmen Shan belt that has a coseismic surface break of more than 200 km long. Trenching excavation across the 2008 earthquake rupture on three representative sites reveals the styles and amounts of the deformation and paleoseismicity along the Longmen Shan fault. Styles of coseismic deformation along the 2008 earthquake rupture at these three sites represent three models of deformation along a thrust fault. Two of the three trench exposures reveal one pre-2008 earthquake event, which is coincident with the pre-existing scarps. Based on the observation of exposed stratigraphy and structures in the trenches and the geomorphic expressions on ground surface, we interpret the 2008 earthquake as a characteristic earthquake along this fault. The interval of reoccurrence of large earthquake events on the Central Longmen Shan fault (the Yingxiu–Beichuan fault) can be inferred to be about 11,000 years according to ¹⁴C and OSL dating. The amounts of the vertical displacement and shortening across the surface rupture during the 2008 earthquake are determined to be 1.0–2.8 m and 0.15–1.32 m, respectively. The shortening rate and uplift rate are then estimated to be 0.09–0.12 mm/yr and 0.18–0.2 mm/yr, respectively. It is indicated that the deformation is absorbed mainly not by shortening, but by uplift along the rupture during the 2008 earthquake.     

2022年MS6.8级泸定地震诱发地质灾害特征与空间分布规律研究

2022年9月5日四川甘孜泸定县发生6.8级地震,诱发了大量地质灾害,造成房屋损毁和多处道路阻断,并导致了严重的人员伤亡。快速预测地震诱发地质灾害空间分布对震后应急救援至关重要。为此,成都理工大学地质灾害防治与地质环境保护国家重点实验室利用已建立的地震诱发滑坡近实时预测模型,在震后2 h内,快速预测了地震诱发滑坡空间分布概率。同时,利用震后重点区域的无人机影像和国产高分六号影像,对地震诱发滑坡进行了智能识别和人工解译及现场调查复核,共解译滑坡3633处,总面积13.78 km2。研究发现本次泸定地震诱发滑坡,较2008年汶川和2017年九寨沟地震滑坡,规模相对较小。本次地震诱发滑坡主要分布于鲜水河断裂带和大渡河两侧,呈带状分布,在磨西镇、得妥镇及王岗坪彝族藏族乡等Ⅸ度烈度区相对集中。对控制滑坡空间分布的地形地貌、地质和地震3类因素9个因子进行分析,发现其主要分布在坡度35°~55°、高程1000~1800 m范围内;受断层控制强烈,主要分布在距断层1 km范围内;在花岗岩中最为发育。上述研究成果获得的地震诱发滑坡及受损道路和房屋分布情况,为震后应急救援提供了重要支撑。     

An open dataset for landslides triggered by the 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake,New Zealand

On November 14, 2016, the northeastern South Island of New Zealand was hit by the magnitude Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake, which is characterized by the most complex rupturing mechanism ever recorded. The widespread landslides triggered by the earthquake make this event a great case study to revisit our current knowledge of earthquake-triggered landslides in terms of factors controlling the spatial distribution of landslides and the rapid assessment of geographic areas affected by widespread landsliding. Although the spatial and size distributions of landslides have already been investigated in the literature, a polygon-based co-seismic landslide inventory with landslide size information is still not available as of June 2021. To address this issue and leverage this large landslide event, we mapped 14,233 landslides over a total area of approximately 14,000 km². We also identified 101 landslide dams and shared them all via an open-access repository. We examined the spatial distribution of co-seismic landslides in relation to lithologic units and seismic and morphometric characteristics. We analyzed the size statistics of these landslides in a comparative manner, by using the five largest co-seismic landslide inventories ever mapped (i.e., Chi-Chi, Denali, Wenchuan, Haiti, and Gorkha). We compared our inventory with respect to these five ones to answer the question of whether the landslides triggered by the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake are less numerous and/or share size characteristics similar to those of other strong co-seismic landslide events. Our findings show that the spatial distribution of the Kaikōura landslide event is not significantly different from those belonging to other extreme landslide events, but the average landslide size generated by the Kaikōura earthquake is relatively larger compared to some other large earthquakes (i.e., Wenchuan and Gorkha).

     

青海玛多“5·22”MS7.4级地震的同震地表破裂特征、成因及意义

2021年5月22日2时4分在青海省果洛藏族州玛多县境内发生M_S7.4级地震,此次玛多M_S7.4级地震是2008年汶川M_S8.0级大地震之后中国震级最大的一次地震,及时查明其同震地表破裂展布及特征,对于正确认识发震构造和区域防震减灾具有重要意义。根据震后现场调查,结合高分辨率卫星遥感图像的解译分析、余震数据和典型地震地表破裂的无人机低空摄影测量等结果,初步获得了此次地震6处典型地震地表破裂的特征。结果发现:此次玛多地震的地表破裂主要沿已知的东昆仑断裂带的南侧分支断裂昆仑山口-江错断裂的东南段分布,分析表明其中的江错断裂应是此次地震的发震断层;同震破裂的西段总体走向275°~300°,主要表现为挤压鼓包和雁列式张裂隙的斜列组合,其中江错贡麻段至江多村段出现了明显的1.4~0.8 m的垂直位移,指示该段可能具有较明显的正断层成分;中部黄河乡段主要由一系列呈左阶斜列的北西向P剪切裂缝和右阶雁行排列的北东向张裂隙构成,走滑位移较小;而东段地表破裂出现了多个分支,其中北支昌马河段主要由一系列雁行排列的张裂隙组成,总体走向为260°,与断裂西段的走向明显不同;地震造成的最大左旋位移出现在西段的错尔加拉破裂段,约2.8 m,指示此次地震地表破裂带的走滑位移主要呈从西向东的单侧扩展-衰减特征。考虑到此次玛多地震出现在东昆仑主干断裂南侧的巴颜喀拉地块内部,表明该地块内部具有发生7级以上大地震的能力,因此,巴颜喀拉地块内部强震活动的孕震条件和机理应该是未来需要进一步关注的科学问题。      

Topographical features of rainfall-triggered landslides in Mon State,Myanmar, August 2019: spatial distribution heterogeneity and uncommon large relative heights

Continuous 5-day (August 4–9, 2019) torrential rainfall in the monsoon season triggered more than 90 landslides on northwest-southeast extended mountain range of Mon State, Myanmar. In this study, remote sensing images, DEM, and limited fieldworks were used to create the landslide inventory. The topography features of these landslides are analyzed via ArcGIS. The largest one occurred on 9 August 2019 and caused 75 deaths and 27 buildings were damaged. This landslide occurred on gentle topography (slope angle, 23°) with long run-out, in which the angle of reach was relatively low (10°). The volume was 111,878 m³ was mainly composed of weathered granite and red soil and the sliding depth was approximately 7.5 m. Topographic characteristics including the relative slope height, angle of reach, and slope angle of source area of 35 landslides with areas?>?4000 m² were analyzed. The spatial distribution characteristics and topographic features of the 35 landslides below are distinguished: (1) the concentration of most of landslides on southwest-facing slopes showing the heterogeneous spatial distribution of landslide; (2) an uncommon landslide distribution in which more than half of landslide originates from upper slope; (3) the range of the angle of the source area (17°–38°) compatible with the internal friction angle of soils in tropical regions (17°–33°); and (4) the tangent of the angle of reach is generally smaller than 0.5 (angle of reach?<?27°) shows a relative high mobility and the relation between landslide mobility and the slope angle of the landslide source area is similar to the one of earthquake-triggered landslides, even though the triggering mechanism, landslide type, and landslide volume are dramatically different.

     

Thermal and mechanical behaviour of the orogenic middle crust during the syn‐ to late‐orogenic evolution of the Variscan root zone,Bohemian Massif

We combine structural observations, petrological data and ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar ages for a stack of amphibolite facies metasedimentary units that rims high‐P (HP) granulite facies felsic bodies exposed in the southern Bohemian Massif. The partly migmatitic Varied and Monotonous units, and the underlying Kaplice unit, show a continuity of structures that are also observed in the adjacent Blanský les HP granulite body. They all exhibit an earlier NE?SW striking and steeply NW‐dipping foliation (S3), which is transposed into a moderately NW‐dipping foliation (S4). In both the Varied and Monotonous units, the S3 and S4 foliations are characterized by a Sil–Bt–Pl–Kfs–Qtz–Ilm±Grt assemblage, with occurrences of post‐D4 andalusite, cordierite and muscovite. In the Monotonous unit, minute inclusions of garnet, kyanite, sillimanite and biotite are additionally found in plagioclase from a probable leucosome parallel to S3. The Kaplice unit shows rare staurolite and kyanite relicts, a Sil–Ms–Bt–Pl–Qtz±Grt assemblage associated with S3, retrogressed garnet?staurolite aggregates during the development of S4, and post‐D4 andalusite, cordierite and secondary muscovite. Mineral equilibria modelling for representative samples indicates that the Varied unit records conditions higher than ~7 kbar at 725 °C during the transition from S3 to S4, followed by a P?T decrease from ~5.5 kbar/750 °C to ~4.5 kbar/700 °C. The Monotonous unit shows evidence of partial melting in the S3 fabric at P?T above ~8 kbar at 740–830 °C and a subsequent P?T decrease to 4.5–5 kbar/700 °C. The Kaplice unit preserves an initial medium‐P prograde path associated with the development of S3 reaching peak P?T of ~6.5 kbar/640 °C. The subsequent retrograde path records 4.5 kbar/660 °C during the development of S4. ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar geochronology shows that amphibole and biotite ages cluster at c. 340 Ma close to the HP granulite, whereas adjacent metasedimentary rocks preserve c. 340 Ma amphibole ages, but biotite and muscovite ages range between c. 318 and c. 300 Ma. The P?T conditions associated with S3 imply an overturned section of the orogenic middle crust. The shared structural evolution indicates that all mid‐crustal units are involved in the large‐scale folding cored by HP granulites. The retrograde P–T paths associated with S4 are interpreted as a result of a ductile thinning of the orogenic crust at a mid‐crustal level. The ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar ages overlap with U–Pb zircon ages in and around the HP granulite bodies, suggesting a short duration for the ductile thinning event. The post‐ductile thinning late‐orogenic emplacement of the South Bohemian plutonic complex is responsible for a re‐heating of the stacked units, reopening of argon system in mica and a tilting of the S4 foliation to its present‐day orientation.     

Mid‐Holocene history of a central European lake: Lake Komořany,Czech Republic

Palaeolimnological reconstruction of the aquatic environment in Lake Komo?any, based on sedimentology, geochemistry, and diatom and macrofossil analyses in the littoral part of the basin, reflects the mid‐Holocene history of the profile from its origin c. 9100 cal. a BP to its final transformation into an alder carr c. 4100 cal. a BP. The existence of the littoral zone can be best explained by increased precipitation during the studied interval. A stable diatom community, diatom‐inferred total phosphorus (50–80 μg L^?1) and pH (~7.6), along with stable concentrations of elements associated with changes in its watershed indicate a long‐lasting, balanced aquatic environment with no major shifts attributable to external factors, including climate change. From c. 4700 cal. BP, there started a transition to terrestrial conditions, caused by either natural infilling processes or decreased precipitation. Alternation of remarkable dry/wet phases was not detected, in contrast to numerous analogous central European and supraregional records. Potential human impact was revealed through increases of Corylus and Populus pollen in the Neolithic. These anthropogenic changes in the lake surroundings had no detectable influence on the lacustrine environment. The gathered data suggest undramatic, balanced mid‐Holocene environmental and climatic settings for this central European locality, in direct contrast to numerous analogous studies from the region emphasizing fluctuations and shifts found in the sediment record.     

Tsunami hazard evaluation for Kuwait and Arabian Gulf due to Makran Subduction Zone and Subaerial landslides

Given the recent historical disastrous tsunamis and the knowledge that the Arabian Gulf (AG) is tectonically active, this study aimed to evaluate tsunami hazards in Kuwait from both submarine earthquakes and subaerial landslides. Despite the low or unknown tsunami risks that impose potential threats to the coastal area’s infrastructures and population of Kuwait, such an investigation is important to sustain the economy and safety of life. This study focused on tsunamis generated by submarine earthquakes with earthquake magnitudes (M _w ) of 8.3–9.0 along the Makran Subduction Zone (MSZ) and subaerial landslides with volumes of 0.75–2.0 km³ from six sources along the Iranian coast inside the AG and one source at the Gulf entrance in Oman. The level of tsunami hazards associated with these tsunamigenic sources was evaluated using numerical modeling. Tsunami model was applied to conduct a numerical tsunami simulation and predict tsunami propagation. For landslide sources, a two-layer model was proposed to solve nonlinear longwave equations within two interfacing layers with appropriate kinematic and dynamic boundary conditions. Threat level maps along the coasts of the AG and Kuwait were developed to illustrate the impacts of potential tsunamis triggered by submarine earthquakes of different scales and subaerial landslides at different sources. GEBCO 30 arc-second grid data and others were used as bathymetry and topography data for numerical modeling. Earthquakes of M _w 8.3 and M _w 8.6 along the MSZ had low and considerable impacts, respectively, at the Gulf entrance, but negligible impacts on Kuwait. An earthquake of M _w 9.0 had a remarkable impact for the entire Gulf region and generated a maximum tsunami amplitude of up to 0.5 m along the Kuwaiti coastline 12 h after the earthquake. In the case of landslides inside the AG, the majority impact occurred locally near the sources. The landslide source opposite to Kuwait Bay generated the maximum tsunami amplitudes reaching 0.3 m inside Kuwait Bay and 1.8 m along the southern coasts of Kuwait.

     

Semi-brittle behavior of wet olivine aggregates: the role of aqueous fluid in faulting at upper mantle pressures

The role of aqueous fluid in fracturing in subducting slabs was investigated through a series of deformation experiments on dunite that was undersaturated (i.e., fluid-free) or saturated with water (i.e., aqueous-fluid bearing) at pressures of 1.0–1.8 GPa and temperatures of 670–1250 K, corresponding to the conditions of the shallower regions of the double seismic zone in slabs. In situ X-ray diffraction, radiography, and acoustic emissions (AEs) monitoring demonstrated that semi-brittle flow associated with AEs was dominant and the creep/failure strength of dunite was insensitive to the dissolved water content in olivine. In contrast, aqueous fluid drastically decreased the creep/failure strength of dunite (up to ~?1 GPa of weakening) over a wide range of temperatures in the semi-brittle regime. Weakening of the dunite by the aqueous fluid resulted in the reduction of the number of AE events (i.e., suppression of microcracking) and shortening of time to failure. The AE hypocenters were located at the margin of the deforming sample while the interior of the faulted sample was aseismic (i.e., aseismic semi-brittle flow) under water-saturated conditions. A faulting (slip rate of ~?10^?3 to 10^?4 s^?1) associated with a large drop of stress (Δσ?~?0.5 to 1 GPa) and/or pressure (ΔP?~?0.5 GPa) was dominant in fluid-free dunite, while a slow faulting (slip rate?<?8?×?10^?5 s^?1) without any stress/pressure drop was common in water-saturated dunite. Aseismic semi-brittle flow may mimic silent ductile flow under water-saturated conditions in subducting slabs.     

Petrogenesis of Jurassic granitoids in the west central Lhasa subterrane,Tibet, China: the Geji example

The Jurassic magmatic and volcanic rocks are widespread along the west central Lhasa subterrane. However, the petrogenesis of these rocks is poorly understood because of lacking high-quality geochronology and geochemical data. Here, we present new zircon U–Pb age and Hf isotopic data, whole-rock geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic data for the Songduole and Qiangnong plutons in Geji area. LA-ICP-MS dating of zircon yield crystallization ages of 172.1 ± 1.9 and 155.9 ± 1.2 Ma for the Songduole and Qiangnong plutons, respectively. Geochemically, Songduole and Qiangnong granodiorite are characterized by high MgO (2.63–3.49 wt%), high Mg# (49–50), and low TiO₂ (0.48–0.57 wt%). Besides, all rocks show metaluminous, calc-alkaline signatures, with strong depletion of Nb, Ta, and Ti, enrichment of large-ion lithophile (e.g. Rb, Th, K), and a negative correlation between SiO₂ and P₂O₅. All these features are indicative of arc-related I-type magmatism. Five samples from the Songduole granodiorite have whole rock (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i of 0.71207–0.71257, ε_Nd(t) values of ?15.1 to ?13.9, zircon ε_Hf(t) values of ?17.4 to ?10.5, (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 18.402–18.854, (²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 15.660–15.736, and (²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 38.436–39.208. Samples from the Qiangnong granodiorite have (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i of 0.71230–0.71252, ε_Nd(t) values of ?15.1 to ?14.2, zircon ε_Hf(t) values of ?12.6 to ?6.4, (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 18.688–18.766, (²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 15.696–15.717, and (²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb)_t ratios of 38.546–39.083. These geochemical signatures indicate that the two plutons most likely originated from partial melting of the ancient Lhasa lower crust with obvious inputs of mantle-derived melts. Combined with regional geology, our results indicate that the Jurassic magmatism in the west central Lhasa subterrane most likely resulted from the southward subduction of the Bangong Ocean lithosphere beneath the central Lhasa terrane.     

Frequency–size relation of shallow debris slides on cut slopes along a railroad corridor: A case study from Nilgiri hills, Southern India

The probability of landslide volume, V _L , is a key parameter in the quantitative hazard analysis. Several studies have demonstrated that the non-cumulative probability density, p(V _L ), of landslide volumes obeys almost invariably a negative power law scaling of p(V _L ) for landslides exceeding a threshold volume and a roll-over of small landslides. Some researchers attributed the observed roll-over to under-sampling of data, while others relate it to a geo-morphological (physical) property of landslides. We analyzed 15 sets of a complete landslide inventory containing shallow debris slides (2 ≤ V _L  ≤ 3.6 × 10³ m³) with sources located on cut slopes along a 17-km-long railroad corridor. The 15 datasets belong to individual years from 1992 to 2007. We obtained the non-cumulative probability densities of landslide volumes for each dataset and analyzed the distribution pattern. The results indicate that for some datasets the probability density exhibits a negative power law distribution for all ranges of volume, while for others, the negative power scaling exists only for a volume greater than 10 m³, with scaling exponent β varying between 0.96 and 2.4. When the spatial distribution of landslides were analyzed in relation to the terrain condition and triggering rainfall, we observed that the number of landslides and the range and the frequency of volumes vary according to the changes in local terrain condition and the amount of rainfall that trigger landslides. We conclude that the probability density distribution of landslide volumes has a dependency on the local morphology and rainfall intensity and the deviation of small landslides from power law, i.e., the roll-over is a “real effect” and not an artifact due to sampling discrepancies.