汶川地震高烈度区暴雨滑坡活动的遥感动态分析

强烈地震作用对山地斜坡稳定性影响是长期的,汶川地震不仅直接诱发了大量滑坡,而且在后继的强降雨过程中大大加速了震区滑坡的活动性.以汶川地震高烈度区的北川县城及湔江河谷为研究区,利用高精度航空图像解译出1 214处不同类型的滑坡.地震后的2008年9月24日暴雨过程诱发了更多的滑坡和泥石流, 这场20年一遇的强降雨的累积雨量为272.7 mm.基于SPOT 5遥感影像解译,共发现新增的暴雨滑坡823处.根据“9·24”暴雨前后的遥感解译结果对比,研究区暴雨诱发的滑坡数量增加了68%,滑坡面积扩大了46.6%,这种现象表明强震后暴雨对滑坡发育和活动影响十分明显.研究结果也说明汶川震区在强降雨作用下极易发生滑坡和泥石流.      

汶川地震崩滑灾害影响因素分析

为研究汶川地震崩滑灾害主要影响因素,在掌握汶川地震灾区公路沿线地震崩滑灾害资料基础上,选取典型段进行灾害统计分析,研究表明动力条件下斜坡失稳主要受斜坡岩体结构特征、地震动峰值加速度和斜坡动力响应特征三方面因素影响。地震动峰值加速度越高,地震崩滑灾害越发育。斜坡动力响应特征主要取决于地形地貌和地层岩性,陡坡硬岩段为地震崩滑灾害高发区。斜坡岩体结构是控制斜坡变形破坏的主要因素,从研究斜坡动力失稳角度,提出了斜坡岩体结构类型的划分,分为土层及强风化层——基岩二元结构、块状结构、层状及似层状结构、碎裂结构、土层等5个大类12个亚类。     

汶川地震黄洞子沟右岸大型滑坡地质构造特征及成因

"5·12"汶川地震发生于龙门山逆冲构造带映秀-北川断裂,此次地震沿约300 km地表破裂带触发了大型滑坡百余处,其中大光包滑坡、红石沟滑坡和老鹰岩滑坡发育于绵阳安州区黄洞子沟右岸不到5 km区段内,规模均超过千万方,且大光包滑坡是此次地震中最大滑坡,也是世界罕见的巨型滑坡。本研究通过大量现场照片、遥感影像和实地测绘,结合XRD、岩石薄片手段在此3个滑坡滑源区展开了详细的地质调查。结果表明:（1）先期深埋的中-缓倾构造层带为大光包滑坡提供了潜在侧滑面,与岩体结构面组合触发了大光包大型楔形体破坏;（2）红石沟滑坡发育于含多级角砾、糜棱质次级错动带的碎裂结构坡体,地震中这些倾坡外的次级错动带快速贯通形成滑坡底滑面;（3）老鹰岩滑坡主控于厚层陡倾构造带,地震中该带沿走向拉裂破坏,加之两侧陡倾结构面组合切割触发了老鹰岩大型楔形体破坏。研究进一步发现,红石沟斜坡紧临大水闸背斜轴部、老鹰岩和大光包斜坡位于其两翼,认为该背斜构造对研究区斜坡地震稳定性有较大影响。本研究仅揭示了3个典型地质构造滑坡类型,汶川地震百余处大型滑坡地质构造成因有待进一步研究。     

含贯通性结构面岩质边坡动力演化规律

针对一种含贯通性顺倾结构面的岩质边坡,开展地震波场传播特性、动力演化规律和破坏机制研究。基于华丽高速公路金沙江大桥桥址边坡,实施了数值分析及振动台模型试验。通过地震波场数值模拟,明确了地震波场受贯通性结构面影响,在贯通性结构面和坡面之间反复叠加,加速度放大效应较均质边坡增大约1.8倍。振动台模型试验中不断增大地震输入烈度,加速度响应在烈度为Ⅷ度时发生突变,边坡由弹性响应阶段进入塑性阶段。在裂度为Ⅸ度时坡脚附近裂缝进一步扩展、贯通,直至发生整体滑动失稳,滑动面沿后缘陡倾结构面剪出、贯通性顺倾结构面滑动、下部坡脚附近剪出。强震后受扰动边坡若处在塑性阶段/不稳定阶段,在其他外力触发下有可能发生滑坡灾害。     

Landslides induced by the April 2007 Aysén Fjord earthquake, Chilean Patagonia

On the 21st of April 2007, the Aysén Fjord earthquake (Mw 6.2) in southern Chile (45.3° S, 73.0° W) triggered hundreds of landslides in the epicentral area along the fjord coast and surroundings. Some of these landslides induced large tsunami waves within the fjord causing fatalities and damaging several salmon farms, the most important economic activity of the area. The landslides included rock slides and avalanches, rock falls, shallow soil and soil–rock slides, and debris flows. The earthquake was the climax of a seismic swarm that began 3 months earlier. The seismicity is associated with tectonic activity along the Liquiñe–Ofqui fault zone (LOFZ), a major structural feature of the region. The earthquake-induced landslides were mapped and classified from field observations and remote sensing analysis. The landslide areas and epicentral distances are within the expected range for the earthquake magnitude according to worldwide data, while the position of landslides on the slopes strongly suggests topographic amplification effects in triggering the failures. The location of the landslides is also clearly related to some of the main fault branches of the LOFZ. The seismic event has configured a new situation of seismic and landslide hazard in the Aysén region and along the LOFZ, where the presence of towns and economic infrastructure along the coasts of several fjords constitutes a potential risk that was not considered before this seismic event.     

Identification of shear strength and seismic coefficient by back analyzing surficial slides in the 2004 Mid-Niigata prefecture earthquake

Sliding of natural and artificial slopes generally occurs during or following strong earthquakes. Such sliding is greatly affected by a combination of geological conditions and earthquake loading. Earthquake-induced landslides often cause more damage to infrastructure and human lives than the earthquake itself. Pseudo-static analysis is widely implemented as one of several design methods used in engineering practice to assess the seismic stability of natural and artificial slopes. However, the most important issue of pseudo-static analysis is to select the most appropriate method for measuring seismic coefficient. In order to investigate this, back analysis was conducted for surficial slides subjected to strong ground motion during the 2004 Mid-Niigata prefecture earthquake in Japan. This paper surveyed the stochastic properties of earthquake-induced surficial slides and clearly showed that the obtained results were applicable to back analysis of shear strength and seismic coefficient. In back analysis, soil properties such as soil strength and density and sliding depth were assumed as random variables owing to their uncertainties. Seismic coefficient is also assumed to be a random variable and varies with distance from the epicenter fault line. The analysis of 4504 recorded surficial slides clearly shows a unique relationship of landslide occurrence ratio with slope angle and distance from the epicenter fault line. This study’s results enhance the calculation of the shear strength of weathered soil covering slopes and the horizontal seismic coefficient through back analysis procedure. By considering possible stochastic properties of variables, some case studies were implemented in the back analysis.     

Landslides induced by a low magnitude seismic sequence at continental interiors: a case study of the Santa Rosa Canyon,northeastern Mexico

Landslides caused by a low magnitude earthquake swarm (2.8?≤?M?≤?3.6) in 2012 were documented at the Santa Rosa Canyon in northeastern Mexico. Disrupted landslides from falls and slides, in both rocks and soils, were identified based on fieldwork and high-resolution satellite imagery along stream banks from natural cliffs and along the road cut in the epicentral area. Most of the landslides occurred on slopes greater than 40°, where geological features played a key role in triggering slope instabilities. The maximum distance limit for disrupted slides from the epicentral area was 7 km. The area affected by landslides during the early stage of the seismic sequence (July through August 2012) was 90 km². Landslide identification was limited in some areas by the resolution of the satellite imagery and dense cloud coverage. Both the epicentral distance and the area affected by landslides are above the global bounds reported in literature. The final landslide inventory is the first documented case of earthquake-induced landslides in northeastern Mexico.     

锚固上覆红黏土岩体边坡的地震动力响应

基于云南省S214思茅-江城二级公路某一边坡,利用有限差分软件FLAC3D中动力分析模块,研究了地震作用下锚杆支护的上覆红黏土岩体边坡的动力响应。基于土体与支护结构相互作用及其协同工作,建立了三维有限差分模型,给出了阻尼和动力作用下边界的选取方法,分析了地震作用下锚杆支护上覆红黏土岩体边坡的动力响应规律,研究了在地震作用下锚杆支护边坡的抗震效果。结果表明：地震作用后各层锚杆轴力和砂浆的剪应力都有所增大,但每层锚杆轴力的增幅都各不相同,锚杆轴力沿全长分布不均匀,且各层锚杆轴力均在红黏土与基岩的交界处最大,剪应力则表现为整体增大的趋势而且最大值向坡面靠近,地震作用前、后剪应力的最小值都是在红黏土与基岩的交界处;地震作用下锚杆的支护很好地限制了边坡的变形,加大了边坡的延性,具有很好的抗震性能;边坡在地震作用下产生了永久位移;坡体内加速度在竖向随高程增加而增大;平台的设置削弱了坡面加速度的增大趋势,起到了一定减震作用。研究结论对锚杆支护边坡的抗震设计与动力分析有一定参考价值。     

地震极震区岩体滑坡滑动面振动破坏形成与稳定性评价的探讨

汶川Ms8.0级地震表明:极震区地质灾害最严重,滑坡密度、规模和分布面积等远大于该区以外区域。对极震区岩石坡体稳定性与滑坡发生的预测评价,必须考虑极震区地震波的特点与岩体的地质结构及其弱层面力学强度。已有方法只考虑水平加速度的作用对极震区可能得不到符合实际的结果。根据岩体结构力学观点,结合岩石强度分析,提出极震区发生滑坡主要是坡体中的弱层弱面发生了张破坏或剪破坏以及两种破坏的结合—张剪破坏。极震区地震波入射地表角度大,必须应用合向量作用的地震力来评价坡体的稳定性,同时分别考虑P波和S波的作用。对两种常见的单一弱层面和双弱层面组合的简单地质模型,根据极限平衡原理、定义了5种破坏类型在指定方向的临界破坏加速度,只要代入地震作用方位角与岩体弱层面的几何参数及其力学强度,就能计算出不同破坏类型的临界加速度,然后用实际地震加速度转换成指定方向的加速度,与临界加速度进行比较,即可判断滑动面形成破坏的力学类型与坡体稳定性。强调了这种方法只有在详细工程地质工作的基础上才能获得好的结果。     

甘肃黑方台滑坡类型与活动特征研究

由于农业灌溉水的长期入渗软化作用,1984-2019年甘肃黑方台已频繁发生滑坡灾害约150次,沿黄土塬边形成长约10公里的滑坡密集发育带。滑坡类型以中、小型黄土层内滑坡为主,占90%以上;大、中型黄土-泥岩顺层滑坡次之。黄土层内滑坡速度快、滑程远,突发性、频发性、继发性强;黄土-泥岩顺层滑坡速度慢、滑程近、复活性强。高陡的台缘地形和强度低、水敏感性强的岩土体和岩层倾向坡外的地质结构是滑坡发生的基础,台塬区长期大量的农业灌溉是主要引发因素,大量水体入渗软化斜坡岩土体,使抗剪强度降低,并形成了约20多米厚的饱和软弱基座,导致斜坡失稳滑动,侧压力、季节性冻结滞水和溶滤作用等也有一定影响。黄土层内滑坡高速远程滑动的主要原因是：滑坡剪出口位置高,滑动势能大,释放条件好,剪出口下部有陡坡加速段和开阔、平缓的滑动空间,滑体底部饱和软弱黏性土持续产生超孔隙水压力、液化等低摩阻效应,是远程滑动的润滑剂。黄土-泥岩顺层滑坡的主滑面沿外倾15°左右的泥岩层面发育,且剪出口位于斜坡下部坡脚部位,能量释放条件差,决定了黄土-泥岩顺层滑坡的滑动速度较低、滑动距离较短,滑体易再次复活滑动。     

天水市麦积区税湾地震黄土滑坡特征及其形成机制

以天水市税湾地震黄土滑坡为例, 依据野外调查和室内测试结果, 总结天水地区历史地震黄土滑坡特点, 剖析地震黄土滑坡发生的力学机制, 初步提出历史地震黄土滑坡的识别标志。税湾滑坡及柳沟右岸滑坡群属典型的地震黄土滑坡, 具有规模大、滑动面切割深、滑坡坡度小、成群成带分布和高位下滑等特点, 可作为识别历史地震黄土滑坡的重要标志。税湾滑坡及柳沟右岸滑坡群坡体具有明显的黄土/泥岩二元斜坡结构, 极易沿黄土/泥岩接触面滑动。当坡体受到地震力作用时, 地震产生的循环动荷载一方面降低滑坡岩土体的抗剪强度, 另一方面改变滑坡体的力学状态, 坡体应力平衡遭到破坏, 地震力增加坡体下滑力、减小坡体抗滑力, 导致坡体失稳发生滑坡。目前, 税湾滑坡处于欠稳定状态, 遇地震或强降雨有可能再次失稳下滑, 因而有必要进一步开展地震黄土滑坡的成灾模式研究, 为潜在强震区防灾减灾提供科学依据。      

Seismically induced rock slope failures resulting from topographic amplification of strong ground motions: The case of Pacoima Canyon, California

The 1994 Northridge earthquake (M_w = 6.7) triggered extensive rock slope failures in Pacoima Canyon, immediately north of Los Angeles, California. Pacoima Canyon is a narrow and steep canyon incised in gneissic and granitic rocks. Peak accelerations of nearly 1.6 g were recorded at a ridge that forms the left abutment of Pacoima Dam; peak accelerations at the bottom of the canyon were less than 0.5 g, suggesting the occurrence of topographic amplification. Topographic effects have been previously suggested to explain similarly high ground motions at the site during the 1971 (M_w = 6.7) San Fernando earthquake. Furthermore, high landslide concentrations observed in the area have been attributed to unusually strong ground motions rather than higher susceptibility to sliding compared with nearby zones. We conducted field investigations and slope stability back-analyses to confirm the impact of topographic amplification on the triggering of landslides during the 1994 earthquake. Our results suggest that the observed extensive rock sliding and falling would have not been possible under unamplified seismic conditions, which would have generated a significantly lower number of areas affected by landslides. In contrast, modelling slope stability using amplified ground shaking predicts slope failure distributions matching what occurred in 1994. This observation confirms a significant role for topographic amplification on the triggering of landslides at the site, and emphasises the need to select carefully the inputs for seismic slope stability analyses.     

映秀—卧龙公路沿线汶川地震地质灾害研究

映秀—卧龙公路是汶川地震灾区距震中最近、震害最为严重的一条公路,本文对沿线地震地质灾害进行了详细的调查研究。依据震害特征,将沿线震害划分为斜坡中上部强风化岩体及土层失稳、结构面切割岩体崩滑失稳、滑坡、泥石流等4类,并分析了沿线震害发育规律。调查表明:龙门山后山断裂两侧地震地质灾害呈现显著的差异性,主要是由深大断裂的消震隔震效应,地貌放大效应,地质结构等三方面因素决定的。通过134条实测剖面分析,研究了地震失稳斜坡坡度和失稳部位。地震诱发失稳斜坡坡度在33°~84°之间,主要分布在41°~65°之间,可以认为地震诱发斜坡失稳灾害主要发生在40°以上的斜坡。斜坡失稳部位主要分布在斜坡中上部以及地貌突出部位,主要失稳部位在0.4坡高以上。从研究斜坡动力失稳的角度,将沿线斜坡划分为基岩-土层及强风化层斜坡地质结构、不利外倾结构面基岩斜坡地质结构、块状构造基岩斜坡地质结构、块碎石土层斜坡地质结构等几种地质结构模型,分析论述了各种地质结构相应的地震地质灾害类型及特点。     

Characteristics and remediation of a landslide complex triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan, China earthquake-case from Yingxiu near the earthquake epicenter

During the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, the river valley from Yingxiu to Wenchuan experienced numerous landslides and became a prominent area of landslide complexes. The present large landslide complex near the earthquake epicenter consisted of Laohuzui slide 1, Laohuzui slide 2 and Douyaping slide. The scale, geology, morphology, sliding process, and failure mechanism of the landslide complex are analyzed by means of field investigation, aerial photograph and stereographic projection technique. Characteristics of these three slides including seismic response of slope, landslide debris, damage and potential failure are discussed: the convex slope and the upslope of fractured granitic rock at high altitude are highly prone to landsliding under earthquake; the high source altitude and long travel path determine grain sizes and the deposit angle of the slide debris; the landslide complex completely buries the G213 roadway and dams up the Minjiang River in these sections; after the earthquake, rainfall, aftershocks and river erosion may retrigger new failures, such as retrogressive slide of weathered fractured rock, colluvial landslide, debris flow, embankment failure and rockfall. The following are presented as suggested remedial measures to protect the roadway and stabilize the slope: the removing and trenching, protective concrete/rock blocks against erosion, retaining structure, rockfall stopping wall, rockfall restraining net, rock bolt, and the planting of vegetation.     

Spatial distribution of landslides triggered by the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008 is one of the most disastrous earthquakes in China. The earthquake triggered tens of thousands of landslides over a broad area, including shallow, disrupted landslides, rock falls, deep-seated landslides, and rock avalanches, some of which buried large sections of some towns and dammed the rivers. The purpose of this study is to investigate correlations between the occurrence of landslides with geologic and geomorphologic conditions, and seismic parameters. Over 56,000 earthquake-triggered landslides, with a total area of 811 km², are interpreted using aerial photographs and remote sensing images taken following the earthquake. The spatial distribution of these landslides is analyzed statistically using both landslide-point density (LPD), defined as the number of landslides per square kilometer, and landslide-area density (LAD), the percentage of the area affected by landslides, to determine how the occurrence of landslides correlates with distance from the epicenter, distance from the major surface rupture, seismic intensity and peak ground acceleration (PGA), slope angle, slope aspect, elevation, and lithology. It is found that both LAD and LPD have strong positive correlations with slope steepness, distance from the major surface rupture and seismic intensity, and that Pre-Sinian schist, and Cambrian sandstone and siltstone intercalated with slate have the most concentrated landslide activities, followed by the Permian limestone intercalated with shale, and Devonian limestone. Statistical analyses also indicate that the major surface rupture has influence on the spatial distribution of landslides, because LAD and LPD are relatively higher on the hanging wall than on the footwall. However, the correlation between the occurrence of landslides with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake is complicated, rather than a relatively simple negative correlation as found from other reported cases of earthquakes. This is possibly due to complicated rupture processes of the earthquake.     

Seismic landslides hazard zoning based on the modified Newmark model: a case study from the Lushan earthquake,China

Seismically triggered landslides can cause great damage to the road construction in mountainous areas. The permanent displacement analysis based on Newmark sliding-block model can evaluate risk of these landslides from the perspective of deformation damage and overall failure probability of slopes. However, the sliding-block model does not consider the attenuation effect of the shear strength on the sliding surface during earthquake, causing the calculated value of Jibson method to be less than the actual value. Therefore, the Newmark model was modified by adding attenuation coefficients to the effective internal friction angle and the effective cohesion of geologic units. The landslide areal density was proposed for hazard zoning with the Wenchuan earthquake data. The results showed that the predicted values agreed well with the real distribution of the landslides triggered by the Lushan earthquake. The proposed hazard zoning method in this paper can predict the severity of seismic landslides in consideration of the environmental changes in mountainous regions after the earthquake and provide support for the site selection in highly seismic areas.

     

金沙江特大桥左岸岸坡岩体结构面强度参数取值及工程稳定性评价

丽香铁路金沙江特大桥位于金沙江虎跳峡镇高地震烈度深切峡谷地段。香格里拉端岸坡地形陡峻,卸荷裂隙发育,岸坡岩体在地震及工程荷载作用下的稳定性直接控制了桥梁选址方案的可行性。在深入分析对岸坡工程地质条件的基础上,基于节理特征分析的Barton模型、岩体结构面强度实验,讨论了岩体结构面强度参数,并在此基础上采用底摩擦实验研究了岸坡在自然和工程荷载作用下的稳定性,进而采用离散单元法计算分析了岸坡岩体在自然、桥基荷载作用下、地震加桥基荷载作用工况条件下的破坏趋势。研究表明,岸坡整体稳定,但在地震和桥梁荷载作用下,岸坡卸荷裂隙进一步发育,对桥基影响较大,应加强卸荷带岩体的工程整治以确保桥基安全。     

中等倾角岩层顺向坡滑坡发育特征及形成机制分析

中等倾角岩层顺向坡,受坡体结构和岩体物理力学性质控制,多存在变形、崩塌、滑坡等工程地质问题,常常会诱发大规模的地质灾害。该类斜坡潜在滑动面不直接出露地表,一般具有变形机制复杂、隐蔽性强和危害大的特点,是滑坡领域关注与研究的重点。拖担水库大坝左岸为一古滑坡,在水库扩建开挖过程中,诱发古滑坡体复活。在分析古滑坡工程地质条件的基础上,结合地质勘察和变形监测结果,研究了其变形特征及形成机制。研究结果表明:①左岸古滑坡具有岩层倾角“上陡下缓”、滑体底部存在反倾坡内的剪切破碎带、滑床岩体产生弧状弯曲的特点;②古滑坡体为一基岩顺层滑坡,滑动模式为“滑移（弯曲）—剪断”型,其变形破坏过程包括三个阶段:弯曲隆起阶段、滑移剪出阶段和扰动变形阶段;③该类斜坡变形破坏后,坡体易沿“上陡下缓”的椅型软弱层面发生二次滑动,滑坡控制关键是对下部变形区的保护。     

Landslide triggers along volcanic rock slopes in eastern Sicily (Italy)

A new dataset of landslides, occurred in a tectonically active region, has been analysed in order to understand the causes of the slope instability. The landslides we have dealt with took place along the volcanic rock cliff of S. Caterina and S. Maria La Scala villages (eastern Sicily, Italy), a densely inhabited area located on the eastern margin of Mt. Etna, where some seismogenic faults, locally named Timpe system, slip during moderate local earthquakes and also move with aseismic creep mechanisms. The results show that landslides are triggered by heavy rainfalls, earthquakes and creep fault episodes. Indeed, they occur along discrete fault segments, exhibiting a combination of both brittle failure, indicated by the earthquake occurrence, and aseismic creep events. The analysis of seismicity occurred on the Timpe fault system has shown that the active Acireale fault, in its southernmost segment, is subject to an aseismic sliding, which increases after the stick–slip motion in the nearby faults. Therefore, aseismic creep seems to concur in the predisposition of a rock to fail, since strains can increase the jointing of rock masses leading to a modification in the slope stability. Understanding the factors concurring to the slope instability is a useful tool for future assessments of the landslide hazard in densely settled areas, located on a volcanic edifice, such as Etna that is slowly sliding seawards, and where active faults, seismicity and heavy rains affect the deeply fractured slopes.     

Landslide susceptibility and hazard assessment in San Ramón Ravine, Santiago de Chile, from an engineering geological approach

Debris flows and soil and rock slides are among the main geological hazards in the mountain foothills of Central Chile. Geological risk associated with the development of landslides, especially debris flows triggered in the basins of ravines that drain into the capital city, Santiago, has increased in time due to accelerated urban expansion. A landslide hazard evaluation in the San Ramón Ravine, located within the foothills of Santiago is presented. Hazard evaluation is based on a methodology that combines the determination of landslide susceptibility calculated by integration of conditioning factors, with the assessment of slope failure and runout probabilities incorporating geotechnical engineering approaches. The methodology is appropriate for medium or subregional scale studies with limited data. The results show that in San Ramón Ravine the landslide hazard consists mainly of debris flows, rock block slides, rock falls and shallow soil slides. Among these, debris flows are the most important due to the urban area that can be affected. Other case studies show that the method can be used in other regions with minor adaptations for territorial planning or for engineering and environmental purposes.