Mantle heat flow and geotherms for major tectonic units in central Europe

The results of seismic measurements along the deep seismic sounding profile VII and terrestrial heat flow measurements used for construction of heat generation models for the crust in the Paleozoic Platform region, the Sudetic Mountains (Variscan Internides) and the European Precambrian Platform show considerable differences in mantle heat flow and temperatures. At the base of the crust variations from 440–510°C in the models of Precambrian Platform to 700–820°C for the Paleozoic Platform and the Variscan Internides (Sudets) are found. These differences are associated with considerable mantle heat flow variations.The calculated models show mantle heat flow of about 8.4–12.6 mW m^–2 for the Precambrian Platform and 31 mW m^–2 to 40.2 mW m^–2 for Paleozoic orogenic areas. The heat flow contribution originating from crustal radioactivity is almost the same for the different tectonic units (from 33.5 mW m^–2 to 37.6 mW m^–2). Considerable physical differences in the lower crust and upper mantle between the Precambrian Platform and the adjacent areas, produced by lateral temperature variations, could be expected. On the basis of carbon ratio data it can be concluded that the Carboniferous paleogeothermal gradient was much lower in the Precambrian Platform area than in the Paleozoic Platform region.     

On the geothermal regime of some tectonic units in Romania

Heat flow values of 33–58 mW m^–2 were found for the Transylvanian Depression, 45–57 mW m^–2 for the crystalline nucleus of the Eastern Carpathians, and 70–120 mW m^–2 for the Neogene volcanic area. Temperature-depth profile and some geophysical implications of the low values for the Transylvanian Depression are discussed, rendering evident clear-cut differences between this tectonic unit and other Noegene depressions. The heat flow values for the other two investigated tectonic units are usual ones for areas of their age.A preliminary map of the heat flow distribution over the Romanian territory is presented and its relation to other geophysical fields is discussed. A positive correlation was found between gravity and heat flow, and a negative one between crustal thickness and heat flow. A general conclusion could be drawn that the heat flow distribution over the Romanian territory seems to be governed by processes taking place in the upper mantle, rather than by the radioactive decay within the crust.     

Mantle heat flow and thermal structure of the northern block of Southern Granulite Terrain, India

Continental shield regions are normally characterized by low-to-moderate mantle heat flow. Archaean Dharwar craton of the Indian continental shield also follows the similar global pattern. However, some recent studies have inferred significantly higher mantle heat flow for the Proterozoic northern block of Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) in the immediate vicinity of the Dharwar craton by assuming that the radiogenic elements depleted exposed granulites constitute the 45-km-thick crust. In this study, we use four-layered model of the crustal structure revealed by integrated geophysical studies along a geo-transect in this region to estimate the mantle heat flow. The results indicate that: (i) the mantle heat flow of the northern block of SGT is 17 ± 2 mW/m², supporting the global pattern, and (ii) the lateral variability of 10–12 mW/m² in the surface heat flow within the block is of crustal origin. In terms of temperature, the Moho beneath the eastern Salem–Namakkal region appears to be at 80–100 °C higher temperature than that beneath the western Avinashi region.     

Heat flow in Italy

More than fifty heat flow measurements in Italy are examined. The values, corrected only for local influences (when present), are related to the main geological features with the following results: foreland areas, 55±19 mW m^–2, foredeep areas, 45±21 mW m^–2; folded regions and intermountain depressions, 76±29 mW m^–2. In volcanic areas the heat flow rises to in excess of 600 mW m^–2. From a tectonic point of view, these values are consistent with the hypothesis that the Apennine chain is intersected by two arcuate structures: the first from Liguria to Latium is very probably a continental arc, that is an are which occurs within a continent, and the second from Campania to Calabria is very similar from geophysical evidence to the classic island arcs.     

Heat flow and the geothermal potential of Egypt

Preliminary heat flow values ranging from 42 to 175 mW m^–2 have been estimated for Egypt from numerous geothermal gradient determinations with a reasonably good geographical distribution, and a limited number of thermal conductivity determinations. For northern Egypt and the Gulf of Suez, gradients were calculated from oil well bottom hole temperature data; east of the Nile, and at three sites west of the Nile, gradients were calculated from detailed temperature logs in shallow boreholes. With one exception, the heat flow west of the Nile and in northern Egypt is estimated to be low, 40–45 mW m^–2, typical of a Precambrian Platform province. A local high, 175 mW m^–2, is probably due to local oxidational heating or water movement associated with a phosphate mineralized zone. East of the Nile, however, including the Gulf of Suez, elevated heat flow is indicated at several sites, with a high of 175 mW m^–2 measured in a Precambrian granitic gneiss approximately 2 km from the Red Sea coast. These data indicate potential for development of geothermal resources along the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez coasts. Water geochemistry data confirm the high heat flow, but do not indicate any deep hot aquifers. Microearthquake monitoring and gravity data indicate that the high heat flow is associated with the opening of the Red Sea.     

Heat flow map of the European part of the U.S.S.R.

A heat flow isoline map is presented. Low and relatively constant heat flow has been observed in the old shield areas of the East European Platform (25–40 mW/m²). Increased heat flow (>50 mW/m²) has been found in the Dniepr-Donetz depression. The area south of the East European Platform is characterized by highly variable heat flow (55–100 mW/m²). Some geophysical implications are discussed.     

Crustal thermal models for South Siberia

Summary The results of geothermal research carried out in South Siberia (West-Siberian and Siberian Platforms, Altai-Sayan folded area and the Baikalian arched uplift zone) were employed to calculate the Earth's crustal temperatures. It is shown that temperature is a function of the heat flow value. The maps of the surface heat flow and the temperatures at the Moho discontinuity are presented and characteristic temperature-depth profiles were compiled for specific tectonic areas. The West-Siberian and Siberian Platforms, as well as the Altai-Sayan folded region are characterized by rather low heat flow, 42–50mW m ^–2 (1.0–1.2 µcal/cm ² s), and low temperatures at the Moho boundary.400–500 °C. The thermal conditions in the area of Lake Baikal are extreme, the heat flow reaches here100–142 mW m ^–2 (2.4–3.4 µcal/cm ² s), and the temperature at the crust's bottom may exceed1000 °C. The Moho-surface according to our calculations is nonisothermal.     

Diversion of heat by Archean cratons: a model for southern Africa

The surface heat flow in the interior of Archean cratons is typically about 40 mW m⁻² while that in Proterozoic and younger terrains surrounding them is generally considerably higher. The eighty-four heat flow observations from southern Africa provide an excellent example of this contrast in surface heat flow, showing a difference of some 25 mW m⁻² between the Archean craton and younger peripheral units. We investigate two possible contributions to this contrast: (1) a shallow mechanism, essentially geochemical, comprising a difference in crustal heat production between the two terrains, and (2) a deeper mechanism, essentially geodynamical, arising from the existence of a lithospheric root beneath the Archean craton which diverts heat away from the craton into the thinner surrounding lithosphere. A finite element numerical model which explores the interplay between these two mechanisms suggests that a range of combinations of differences in crustal heat production and lithospheric thickness can lead to the contrast in surface heat flow observed in southern Africa. Additional constraints derived from seismological observations of cratonic roots, the correlation of surface heat flow and surface heat production, petrological estimates of the mean heat production in continental crust and constraints on upper mantle temperatures help narrow the range of acceptable models. Successful models suggest that a cratonic root beneath southern Africa extends to depths of 200–400 km. A root in this thickness range can divert enough heat to account for 50–100% of the observed contrast in surface heat flow, the remainder being due to a difference in crustal heat production between the craton and the surrounding mobile belts in the range of zero to 0.35 μW m⁻³.     

On the heat flux related to stretching in the NW-Mediterranean continental margins

Summary The surface thermal flux of the continental margins of the northwestern Mediterranean Sea is interpreted on the basis of a 1-D instantaneous pure shear stretching model of the lithosphere in terms of three components: the background heat flowing out from the asthenosphere (38 mW m^–2), the transient contribution depending on the rift age and extension amount (35 mW m^–2 at the most), and the contribution due to the radiogenic elements of the lithosphere. The radiogenic component is estimated at the continental margins of the Ligurian-Provençal basin and Valencia trough, and in the surrounding mainland areas by means of available data of surface heat generation from Variscan Corsica, Maures-Estérel and the Central Massif along with a geophysical-petrological relationship between heat production and seismic velocity. The lithosphere radiogenic heat contribution q_l decreases with the thinning factor according to the exponential law: q_l() = a exp(-b), in which factor b is greater for that part of the lithosphere below the uppermost 10 km. Considering also the heat generated by radioactive isotopes in sediments, the stable Variscan lithosphere produces an average thermal flux of 30 mW m^–2 which decreases by about one half where the lithosphere is thinned by one third. Although the surface heat generation is 2·1 – 3·3 µW m^–3 in the Maures-Estérel massif — excepting small outcrops of dioritic rocks with lower heat production — and 1·8 µW m^–3 for most of Corsica, the radiogenic heating within the lithosphere for such areas is nearly the same and does not explain the higher heat flux of the Corsica margin. This asymmetric thermal pattern with surface heat flux which is 10 – 15 mW m^–2 higher than predictions is probably of upper mantle origin, or can be ascribed to penetrative magmatism.     

Heat flow in Eastern Egypt: The thermal signature of a continental breakup

The Red Sea is a modern example of continental fragmentation and incipient ocean formation. Heat flow data have been collected from eastern Egypt to provide information relating to the mode and mechanism of Red Sea opening. Preliminary heat flow data, including new data reported here, are now available from twenty-five sites in eastern Egypt and one site in western Sinai. A pattern of low to normal heat flow (35–55 mW m⁻²) inland with high heat flow (75–100 mW m⁻²) in a zone within 30 to 40 km of the coast is indicated.Moderately high heat flow (around 70 mW m⁻²) is indicated for the Gulf of Suez. The coastal zone thermal anomaly appears continuous with high heat flow previously reported for the Red Sea shelf. Heat production data indicate that the coastal thermal anomaly is not primarily related to crustal radiogenic heat production. The effects of rapid erosion may contribute to the anomaly, but are not thought to be the primary cause of the anomaly. If the anomaly is caused by lateral conduction from hot, extended, offshore lithosphere, the extension must have been active for the last 30 Ma or so, and a minimum of 100% extension is indicated. Alternatively, the anomaly is primarily caused by high mantle heat flow causing lithospheric thinning, centred beneath the Red Sea. The Red Sea is probably underlain by dominantly basic crust, formed either by intrusion into attenuated continental crust or sea-floor spreading, and for most purposes the crust formed in these two modes of extension may be essentially indistinguishable. Fission-track ages from eastern Egypt indicate that uplift started prior to, or at latest at the time of initial Red Sea opening, and this result, together with thermo-mechanical considerations, suggests an active asthenospheric upwelling beneath the Red Sea and high temperature in the lithosphere prior to extension.     

Temperature paleogradient estimations in the central Bohemian basin

Summary The coalification data of 12 boreholes in the Central Bohemian Basin are used to evaluate the paleotemperature gradients for the Upper Carboniferous period of the basin's development. Two versions of the burial history considered are supposed to yield an upper and a lower estimate. According to the more probable lower version, the average values of the paleogradient suggest an increasing tendency from west to east in the interval of 45–53K/km. The current geothermal gradients vary in the range of 28–35K/km. By combining the present thermal conductivity and the paleogradients, we have tried to estimate the Upper Carboniferous heat flow. Its values range from 96mW/m ² to 117mW/m ² .The results obtained can be compared with the paleogradient estimates in the Saar-Nahe Basin (F. R. of Germany). This region, which is similar with respect to the time of origin and tectonic pattern to the Central Bohemian Basin, displays on the average a slightly higher Permo-Carboniferous geothermal gradient of 60K/km.     

Combined geothermal-geophysical models of the earth's crust and upper mantle for the European continent

An attempt is made to obtain a combined geophysical model along two regional profiles: Black Sea— White Sea and Russian Platform—French Central Massif. The process of the model construction had the following stages: 1. The relation between seismic velocity (V_p, km/s) and density (σ, g/cm³) in crustal rocks was determined from seismic profiles and observed gravity fields employing the trial and error method. 2. Relations between heat production HP (μW/m³), velocity and density were established from heat flow data and crustal models of old platforms where the mantle heat flow HF_M is supposed to be constant. The HF_M value was also determined to 11 ± 5 mW/m². 3. A petrological model of the old platform crust is proposed from the velocity-density models and the observed heat flow. It includes 10–12 km of acid rocks, 15–20 km of basic/metamorphic rocks and 7–10 km of basic ones. 4. Calculation of the crustal gravity effects; its substraction from the observed field gave the mantle gravity anomalies. Extensively negative anomalies have been found in the southern part of Eastern Europe (50–70 mgal) and in Western Europe (up to 200 mgal). They correlate with high heat flow and lower velocity in the uppermost mantle. 5. A polymorphic advection mechanism for deep tectonic processes was proposed as a thermal model of the upper mantle. Deep matter in active regions is assumed to be transported (advected) upwards under the crust and in its place the relatively cold material of the uppermost mantle descends. The resulting temperature distribution depends on the type of endogeneous regime, on the age and size of geostructure. Polymorphic transitions were also taken into account.     

Geophysical evidence on the structure of the Taupo Volcanic Zone and its hydrothermal circulation

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) of New Zealand is characterised by extensive volcanism and by high rates of magma production. Associated with this volcanism are numerous high-temperature (> 250 °C) geothermal systems through which the natural heat output of 4200 ± 500 MW is channelled. Outside the geothermal fields the heat flow is negligible. The average heat flux from the central 6000 km² of the TVZ, which contains most of the geothermal fields, is 700 mW/m³. This heat flux appears to be more concentrated along the eastern margin of the TVZ.Schlumberger resistivity measurements (AB/2 of 500 m and 1000 m) have identified 17 distinct geothermal fields with natural heat outputs greater than 20 MW. An additional six, low-heat-output geothermal fields also occur, and may represent formerly more active systems now in decline. Two extinct fields have also been identified. The average spacing between fields is 10–15 km. The distribution of geothermal fields does not appear to be directly associated with individual volcanic features except for the geothermal system that occurs within Lake Taupo and which occupies the vent of the 1800 yr.B.P. Taupo eruption. The positions of the geothermal fields do not appear to have varied for at least the last 200,000 years. These data are consistent with a model of large-scale convection occurring throughout the TVZ, in which the geothermal fields represent the upper portion of the rising, high-temperature, convective plumes. The majority of the recharge to the convection system is provided by the downward movement of cold meteoric water between the fields which suppresses the heat flow in these regions.Gravity measurements indicate that to a depth of about 2.5 km the upper layers of the TVZ consist of low-density pyroclastic infill. A seismic refraction interface with velocity change from 3.2 km/s to 5.5 km/s occurs at a similar depth. The cross-sectional area of the convection plumes (identified electrically) appears to increase at depths of 1–2 km, consistent with a decrease in permeability at the depth at which the velocity and density increase.The seismicity is dominated by swarm activity which accounts for about half of all earthquakes and is highly variable in both space and time. The small number of seismic events (and swarms) that have well determined depths show a cut off of seismicity at depths of 7–9 km. The depth of the transition from brittle to ductile behaviour of the rocks is identified with the transition from a regime where heat is transported by (hydrothermal) convection and pore pressures are near-hydrostatic to a regime where heat transport is dominantly conductive and pore pressures are lithostatic. Within the convective region, temperatures are moderated by the circulation of water so that the depth of the transition from convective to conductive heat transfer can be linked to the bottom of the seismogenic zone. Rocks must become ductile within about 1 km of the bottom of the overlying convective zone.Seismic refraction studies suggest that the crust beneath the TVZ is highly thinned with a seismic velocity of about 7.5 km/ s, typical of the upper mantle, occurring at depth of 15 km. Seismological studies indicate the upper mantle is highly attenuating beneath the TVZ. Conductive heat transfer between the bottom of the convective system, at about 8 km, and the base of the material with crustal velocities, at 15 km, is not able to provide all the heat that is discharged at the surface. Repeated intrusion from the mantle may provide the additional heat transport required.     

Thermal modeling of the Southern Alps,New Zealand

Finite-element modeling of the thermal regime across the Southern Alps of New Zealand has been carried out along two profiles situated near the Franz Josef and Haast valleys. The modeling involves viscous deformation beneath the Southern Alps, including both uplift and erosion, and crustal/lithospheric thickening, as a result of crustal shortening extending to 20 mm/y of a 25-km thick crust. Published uplift rates and crustal thickness variations along the two profiles are used to constrain the modeled advection of crustal material, and results are compared with the recent heat flow determinations, 190±50 mW/m² in the Franz Josef valley and 90±25 mW/m² in the Haast valley. Comparisons of the model with published K–Ar and fission track ages, show that the observed heat flow in the Franz Josef valley is consistent with observed zircon fission track ages of around 1 Ma, if the present-day uplift rate is close to 10 mm/y. Major thermal differences between the Franz Josef and Haast profiles appear to be due to different uplift and erosion rates. There is weak evidence that frictional heating close to the Alpine fault zone is not significant. The modeling provides explanations for the distribution of seismicity beneath the Southern Alps, and predicts a low surface heat flow over the eastern foothills due to the dominant thermal effect of crustal thickening beneath this region. Predicted temperatures at mid-crustal depth beneath the zone of maximum uplift rate are 50–100°C cooler than those indicated in previously published models, which implies that thermal weakening of the crust may not be the main factor causing the aseismicity of the central Southern Alps. The results of the modeling demonstrate that the different types of reset age data in the region within 25 km of the Alpine fault are critical for constraining models of the deformation and the thermal regime beneath the Southern Alps.     

Geothermal model of Earth's crust and lithosphere for the territory of Yugoslavia: Some tectonic implications

Summary Deep sounding seismic data along nine profiles and measured values of the terrestrial heat flow were used to construct a geothermal model of the crust for the territory of Yugoslavia. The obtained data indicate that the lowest temperatures (250 – 350°C) at the crust base are in the region of the Outer Dinarides and the highest (900 – 1000°C) in the region of the Pannonian Basin and the Serbian-Macedonian Massif. The difference is associated with the changing heat flow which reaches the Earth's crust from the upper mantle. Based on the crustal temperature distribution, an approximate lithospheric thickness was estimated for the first time for the entire territory of Yugoslavia. It is largest under the Outer Dinarides, where it is up to 260 kilometres, and smallest under the Pannonian Basin and the Serbian-Macedonian Massif, only 40 – 50 kilometres.Before the separation of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia.Presented at the International Meeting on Terrestrial Heat Flow and the Structure of Lithosphere, Bechyn Castle, Czech Republic, September 2 – 7, 1991.     

Curie point depth from spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data from Cerro Prieto geothermal area,Baja California,México

Using aeromagnetic data acquired in the area from the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, we estimated the depth to the Curie point isotherm, interpreted as the base of the magnetic sources, following statistical spectral-based techniques. According to our results the Curie point isotherm is located at a depths ranging from 14 to 17 km. Our result is somewhat deeper than that obtained previously based only in 2-D and 3-D forward modeling of previous low-quality data. However, our results are supported by independent information comprising geothermal gradients, seismicity distribution in the crust, and gravity determined crustal thickness. Our results imply a high thermal gradient (ranging between 33 and 38 °C/km) and high heat flow (of about 100 mW/m²) for the study area. The thermal regime for the area is inferred to be similar to that from the Salton trough.     

The 1991 eruption of Hekla,Iceland

The eruption that started in the Hekla volcano in South Iceland on 17 January 1991, and came to an end on 11 March, produced mainly andesitic lava. This lava covers 23 km² and has an estimated volume of 0.15 km³. This is the third eruption in only 20 years, whereas the average repose period since 1104 is 55 years. Earthquakes, as well as a strain pulse recorded by borehole strainmeters, occurred less than half an hour before the start of the eruption. The initial plinian phase was very short-lived, producing a total of only 0.02 km³ of tephra. The eruption cloud attained 11.5 km in height in only 10 min, but it became detached from the volcano a few hours later. Several fissures were active during the first day of the eruption, including a part of the summit fissure. By the second day, however, the activity was already essentially limited to that segment of the principal fissure where the main crater subsequently formed. The average effusion rate during the first two days of the eruption was about 800 m³ s^–1. After this peak, the effusion rate declined rapidly to 10–20 m³ s^–1, then more slowly to 1 m³ s^–1, and remained at 1–12 m³ s^–1 until the end of the eruption. Site observations near the main crater suggest that the intensity of the volcanic tremor varied directly with the force of the eruption. A notable rise in the fluorine concentration of riverwater in the vicinity of the eruptive fissures occurred on the 5th day of the eruption, but it levelled off on the 6th day and then remained essentially constant. The volume and initial silica content of the lava and tephra, the explosivity and effusion rate during the earliest stage of the eruption, as well as the magnitude attained by the associated earthquakes, support earlier suggestions that these parameters are positively related to the length of the preceeding repose period. The chemical difference between the eruptive material of Hekla itself and the lavas erupted in its vicinity can be explained in terms of a density-stratified magma reservoir located at the bottom of the crust. We propose that the shape of this reservoir, its location at the west margin of a propagating rift, and its association with a crustal weakness, all contribute to the high eruption frequency of Hekla.     

Statistical analysis for thermal data in the Japanese Islands

We calculated statistical average of thermal data to speculate regional thermal structure of the forearc area of the Japanese Islands. The three thermal statistical averages show a difference of a high thermal regime in the western part of forearc inner zone and a low in the Kanto forearc outer zone. The Kanto zone marks 18 K km⁻¹ for mean geothermal gradient, 44 mW m⁻² for mean heat flow, while the western inner zone shows 27 K km⁻¹ for mean geothermal gradient, 63 mW m⁻² for mean heat flow. The geothermal gradients of the Nobi Plain and the Osaka Plain in the western inner zone are 29 and 36 K km⁻¹, respectively, while the value of the Kanto Plain in the Kanto zone is 21 K km⁻¹. Taking account of the effect of accumulation of sediments, we see the difference in the thermal regime between the plains and conclude that the difference is significant. Heat flux in the crust depends on the volume of granite rich in radioactive elements. There are few granitic rocks in the Kanto zone, while granitic rocks are dominant in the western inner zone. The heat flow of 20 mW m⁻² is attributed to the granitic rocks of about 8 km in thickness. There are two oceanic plate subductions of the Pacific plate and the Philippine Sea plate under the Kanto zone, while only the Philippine Sea plate has been subducting under the western inner zone. The model simulation based on thermal and subduction model shows a heat flow ranging 50-60 mW m⁻² in the southwest Japan forarc area and a low value of about 20 mW m⁻² in the northeast Japan forearc area. The heat flux from the cooling oceanic lithosphere depends on the age of plate. The Shikoku Basin, a part of the Philippine Sea plate, off the western inner zone is 15-30 Ma, while the Pacific plate off the Kanto zone is 122-132 Ma. Theoretically, heat flux values of 15 and 50 Ma oceanic plates range 60-120 mW m⁻² and those of 122-132 Ma could be about 10 mW m⁻². If the heat flux contribution from the Philippine Sea plate under the Kanto zone is smaller than the plate under the western inner zone, there could be a thermal regime difference in order of several tens of mW m⁻². Conclusively, the cause of the difference of heat flux could be the uneven granitic rocks distribution and/or the difference of heat flux between the two subducting plate.     

Geothermal data analysis at the high-temperature hydrothermal area in Western Sichuan

The western Sichuan hydrothermal area is located at the northeastern margin of the eastern syntaxis of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which is also the eastern end of the Mediterranean-Himalayan geothermal activity zone. There are 248 warm or hot springs in this area, and 11 have temperatures beyond the local boiling temperature. Most of these hot springs are distributed along the Jinshajiang, Dege-Xiangcheng, Ganzi-Litang, and Xianshuihe faults, forming a NW-SE hydrothermal belt. A geothermal analysis of this high-temperature hydrothermal area is an important basis for understanding the deep geodynamic process of the eastern syntaxis of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In addition, this study offers an a priori view to utilize geothermal resources, which is important in both scientific research and application. We use gravity, magnetic, seismic, and helium isotope data to analyze the crust-mantle heat flow ratio and deep geothermal structure. The results show that the background terrestrial heat flow descends from southwest to northeast. The crustal heat ratio is not more than 60%. The high temperature hydrothermal active is related to crustal dynamics processes. Along the Batang-Litang-Kangding line, the Moho depth increases eastward, which is consistent with the changing Qc/Qm(crustal/mantle heat flow) ratio trend. The geoid in the hydrothermal zone is 4–6 km higher than the surroundings, forming a local "platform". The NW-SE striking local tensile stress zone and uplift structure in the upper and middle crust corresponds with the surface hydrothermal active zone. There is an average Curie Point Depth(CPD) of 19.5–22.5 km in Batang, Litang, and Kangding. The local shear-wave(S-wave) velocity is relatively low in the middle and lower crust. The S-wave shows a low velocity trap(Vs3.2 km s.1) at 15–30 km, which is considered a high-temperature partial melting magma, the crustal source of the hydrothermal active zone. We conclude that the hydrothermal system in this area can be divided into Batang-type and Kangding-type, both of which rely on a crustal heating cycle of atmospheric precipitation and surface water along the fracture zone. The heat is derived from the middle and lower crust: groundwater penetrates the deep faults bringing geothermal energy back to the surface and forming high-temperature springs.