Assessment of the effects of a marine urban outfall discharge on caged mussels using chemical and biomarker analysis

To assess the presence of endocrine disruptors in treated marine outfall discharges and their possible effects, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were caged in the environmental mixing zone of the outfall of the Santander sanitation system and in one control area. After 30, 60 and 90 days, samples were collected to perform chemical analyses (metals, anionic surfactants, alkylphenols, bisphenol A, phthalates and estrogenic hormones), biomarkers of general stress (lysosomal membrane stability-LMS, histopathology) and biomarkers of endocrine disruption (vitellogenin-like proteins and gonad index). There were no significant differences between outfall and control sites on contaminant levels, except for 4-tert-octylphenol which was higher in the outfall site. Bacteriological counts were higher in the outfall area. No relevant differences in biomarkers were detected between treated and control mussels. A significant reduction in LMS occurred in both groups after 90 days caging, indicating a stress situation possibly related to caging or to post-spawning reproductive state.     

The role of surfactants in coastal sea pollution

An analysis of the physico-chemical aspects in the distribution of pollutants in the presence of surfactants is reported for coastal marine waters. Three different situations are considered in the interaction of surfactants with soluble components and particle dispersions. The environmental and human health risk is considered as a function of the partition phenomena at the air/water interface and of the effects of weather conditions. The MBAS/Cl⁻ ratio is suggested as an index for assessing coastal sea pollution.     

The Effect of Synthetic Surfactants on the Hydrobiological Mechanisms of Water Self-Purification

Long-term studies of the biological effect of surfactants, including the effect surfactants exert on filter feeders, are reviewed. The role of filter feeders in the functioning of freshwater and marine ecosystems is analyzed. New aspects in the assessment of environmental hazard due to the impact of chemical pollutants, including surfactants and detergents, are established.     

Multiple Discriminant Analysis of Marine Sediment Data

A multivariate statistical approach was used in the analysis of inter-relationships among marine benthic infaunal structure, physical and chemical characteristics of sediment samples and toxicity data derived from laboratory tests at 16 locations in shallow, inshore waters of Hong Kong. The method involved classification (cluster analysis using the Bray–Curtis similarity index) and ordination (multi-dimensional scaling) of infaunal patterns and the use of multiple discriminant analysis to relate groupings of the locations to the selected environmental and toxicity data. Analysis of the combined sediment physical, biological, chemical and toxicity dataset by stepwise multiple discriminant analysis allowed identification of those variables most sensitive for discriminating location groups. The use of multiple discriminant analysis in sediment quality characterization was evaluated against the Sediment Quality Triad approach and other statistical techniques.     

Activation of Persulfate by Surfactants under Acidic and Basic Conditions

Activated persulfate is a commonly used oxidant source used for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) for remediation of subsurface contamination. Surfactants are sometimes used in ISCO to desorb contaminants and dissolve nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs). The potential activation of persulfate by such surfactants was investigated, and the reactive oxygen species generated by persulfate in the presence of anionic, nonionic, and cationic surfactants were determined. Twenty surfactants were screened; most activated persulfate to generate reductants + nucleophiles at acidic and basic pH. The most reactive anionic, nonionic, and cationic surfactants (Lankropol 4500, polyethylene glycol 400, and Ethoduomeen T/25) were investigated in more detail. All three surfactants activated persulfate; however, the cationic surfactant showed the most potential for persulfate activation with high fluxes of hydroxyl radical and reductants + nucleophiles. The results of this research demonstrate that surfactants added to ISCO systems often activate persulfate to generate reductants at both acidic and basic pH, and hydroxyl radical at basic pH. These findings provide a new paradigm for persulfate activation in surfactant in situ chemical oxidation (SISCO) systems; pH regimes >11 may not be necessary for persulfate activation resulting in cost savings and potentially more effective activation of persulfate.     

Aquaculture-related trace metals in sediments and lobsters and relevance to environmental monitoring program ratings for near-field effects

The study was undertaken to assess the marine environmental effects from feed and waste associated with aquaculture activities. Metal compositions of sediment, lobster, and feed were used to evaluate the extent of detectable effects at 0 m (under the cage) and 50 m distance. Sediments that were collected under the cages and were characterised as hypoxic or anoxic, showed elevated levels of Cu, Zn, organic carbon, and % <63 microm particles, and low Mn and Fe. At 50 m there was a major reduction in waste chemical impact. Using lobster, a bioindicator species, as a tool for detecting near-field impacts, showed accumulations of high Cu associated with active aquaculture sites. Chemical compositions and metal ratios normalised with organic carbon, were used to assess the sediment conditions associated with environmental monitoring program ratings (EMP--normal, hypoxic, and anoxic). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to explore chemical data at all sites for differentiating normal, hypoxic and anoxic sediment conditions. Selected variables (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, organic carbon, and particles <63 microm) were sufficient for the PCA approach with >90% explainable variance of first two components. The groupings based on PCA and cluster analysis were similar to EMP classifications with some exceptions of mis-identification by EMP. The sediment chemistry components were valid indicators for evaluating marine environmental conditions and for assessing aquaculture operating sites. The developed techniques, using chemical variables in combination with EMP and the statistical approach should be useful to predict the effects of aquaculture practices and the suitability of aquaculture operations.     

Sensitivity of acoustic propagation to uncertainties in the marine environment as characterized by various rapid environmental assessment methods

Accurate sonar performance prediction modelling depends on a good knowledge of the local environment, including bathymetry, oceanography and seabed properties. The function of rapid environmental assessment (REA) is to obtain relevant environmental data in a tactically relevant time frame, with REA methods categorized by the nature and immediacy of their application, from historical databases through remotely sensed data to in situ acquisition. However, each REA approach is subject to its own set of uncertainties, which are in turn transferred to uncertainty in sonar performance prediction. An approach to quantify and manage this uncertainty has been developed through the definition of sensitivity metrics and Monte Carlo simulations of acoustic propagation using multiple realizations of the marine environment. This approach can be simplified by using a linearized two-point sensitivity measure based on the statistics of the environmental parameters used by acoustic propagation models. The statistical properties of the environmental parameters may be obtained from compilations of historical data, forecast conditions or in situ measurements. During a field trial off the coast of Nova Scotia, a set of environmental data, including oceanographic and geoacoustic parameters, were collected together with acoustic transmission loss data. At the same time, several numerical models to forecast the oceanographic conditions were run for the area, including 5- and 1-day forecasts as well as nowcasts. Data from the model runs are compared to each other and to in situ environmental sampling, and estimates of the environmental uncertainties are calculated. The forecast and in situ data are used with historical geoacoustic databases and geoacoustic parameters collected using REA techniques, respectively, to perform acoustic transmission loss predictions, which are then compared to measured transmission loss. The progression of uncertainties in the marine environment, within and between different REA categories, and the consequences on acoustic propagation are examined.     

Comparative study of activation energies of conductance and desiccation rates of some marine algae

Measurements of the activation energy of electrical conductance and desiccation rates on subtidal marine algae from Florida were compared to similar data from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, on intertidal marine algae frequently subjected to long periods of exposure to air. We have developed a method for calculating the reaction rate constant of desiccation of fully hydrated marine algae. Values of activation energies and desiccation rate constants are consistent with the requirements for survival of these algae under widely different environmental conditions.     

Marine quality assessment by use of benthic species-abundance distributions: a proposed new protocol within the European Union Water Framework Directive

The aim of this study is to develop a new method for classification of marine benthic quality according to the European Union Water Framework Directive. Tolerance values to environmental disturbance were determined in an objective analysis for benthic species along the Swedish west coast by using 4676 samples from 257 stations. Based on a combination of the species tolerance values, abundance and diversity, a benthic quality index (BQI) was calculated for the assessment of environmental status at a particular station. The qualification of BQI was evaluated in relation to known spatial and temporal gradients of disturbance.     

Coastal coal pollution increases Cd concentrations in the predatory gastropod Hexaplex trunculus and is detrimental to its health

Parameters of environmental health, including paracellular permeability of external epithelia, functional state of lysosomes and the level of metallothioneins (MTs), were examined using fluorescent markers and vital microfluorometry in different tissues of the marine gastropod, Hexaplex trunculus, from a coal-polluted and coal-free site. Vital microfluorometrical examinations exhibited enhanced paracellular permeability of external epithelia to the anionic marker, fluorescein (FLU), lower lysosomal accumulation of neutral red (NR) as well as higher levels of MTs, when compared with epithelia of gastropods from the coal-free site. Those differences were particularly marked in the foot epithelium, which is in direct contact with the substrate. In addition, cadmium was measured by ICP-AES in the hepatopancreas of gastropods sampled from the coal-polluted site and two coal-free sites. Significantly higher levels of Cd were found in gastropod hepatopancreas from the coal-polluted site. In addition, two months feeding experiments conducted in aquaria containing: (a) coal pieces covered by barnacles; (b) natural rocks covered by barnacles; and (c) natural rocks with barnacles + bare coal pieces, demonstrated significant increase of Cd concentration in the hepatopancreas of the gastropods exposed to coal. We suggest that coal in the marine environment has detrimental effects on marine gastropods, both directly through contact with the organisms and indirectly through the food web.     

Possible relation between periodic glaciation and the flexure of the Galaxy

A purely radiochemical method is described for analysis of²⁴¹Pu in environmental samples. Data are given showing that fallout-contaminated marine samples, of several kinds and provenances, exhibit²⁴¹Pu/^239,240Pu ratios slightly higher than, but not certainly distinguishable from, those reported for fallout-contaminated soils. Such ratios, however, in samples from several planned or accidental Pu releases, are clearly different, suggesting²⁴¹Pu will be a useful tracer in following the spread of released Pu. The data have also clear implications for the source, and growth, of environmental²⁴¹Am.     

Earthquake-induced residual deformation of Ariake clay deposits with leaching

It is widely known that the sensitivity ratio of Ariake marine clay increases, if the clay is leached. Therefore, it is assumed that the mechanical properties of such clay considerably change and the shear strength decreases, if it is subjected to a cyclic load as a disturbance force, like earthquakes. In the present study, dynamic deformation and strength tests, as well as consolidation tests were conducted on Ariake clay that had leached. Static shear tests were also carried out on the clay after it had been subjected to a cyclic load. The stability of man-made earth structures on Ariake clay deposits that had leached during earthquakes was investigated. Undisturbed samples of the clay sedimented in the sea area were used in all the tests. Furthermore, an earthquake-induced residual deformation analysis was also conducted on the basis of the test results described above. Consequently, the following behaviors were observed in the study. (1) When Ariake marine clay was leached, the dynamic strength decreased and the shear modulus after subjecting it to a cyclic load remarkably decreased. (2) The effect of the leaching on the behavior of Ariake clay deposits was considerable during earthquakes.     

A Marine Biotic Index to Establish the Ecological Quality of Soft-Bottom Benthos Within European Estuarine and Coastal Environments

In this paper, a marine Biotic Index (BI) for soft-bottom benthos of European estuarine and coastal environments is proposed. This is derived from the proportions of individual abundance in five ecological groups, which are related to the degree of sensitivity/tolerance to an environmental stress gradient. The main difference with previously published indices is the use of a simple formula that produces a continuous Biotic Coefficient (BC) – which makes it more suitable for statistical analysis, in opposition with previous discreet biotic indices – not affected by subjectivity. Relationships between this coefficient and a complementary BI with several environmental variables are discussed. Finally, a validation of the proposed index is made with data from systems affected by recent human disturbances, showing that different anthropogenic changes in the environment can be detected through the use of this BI.     

Assessing cause and effect of multiple stressors on marine systems

An operational framework is developed to serve as a guideline for investigating causal relationships between environmental stressors and effects on marine biota. Because of the complexity and variability of many marine systems, multiple lines of evidence are needed to understand relationships between stressors and effects on marine resources. Within this framework, a weight of evidence approach based on multiple lines of evidence are developed and applied in a sequential manner by (1) characterizing the study system which involves determining if target biota are impaired, assessment of food and habitat availability, and measuring contaminant levels in the environment, (2) assessing direct effects of contaminant exposure on target biota using biomarkers and assessing indirect effects of exposure using suites of bioindicators, and (3) applying standard causal criteria based on epidemiological principles and diagnostic health profiling techniques to assess potential causes. Use of multiple lines of evidence should also reduce the risk of false positives (Type I error or falsely concluding that there is a causal relationship when there is none) and false negatives (Type II error or falsely concluding there is not a causal relationship when there actually is). Understanding causal relationships and the mechanistic processes between environmental stressors and effects on biota is important in the effective management and restoration of impaired marine ecosystems.     

Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore's coastal marine environment

Microplastics have been recently identified as marine pollutants of significant concern due to their persistence, ubiquity and potential to act as vectors for the transfer and exposure of persistent organic pollutants to marine organisms. This study documents, for the first time, the presence and abundance of microplastics (>1.6 microm) in Singapore's coastal environment. An optimized sampling protocol for the collection and analysis of microplastics was developed, and beach sediments and seawater (surface microlayer and subsurface layer) samples were collected from nine different locations around the coastline. Low density microplastics were separated from sediments by flotation and polymer types were identified using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry. Synthetic polymer microplastics identified in beach sediments included polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon, polyvinyl alcohol and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Microplastics were detected in samples from four out of seven beach environments, with the greatest quantity found in sediments from two popular beaches in the eastern part of Singapore. Polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene microplastics were also found in the surface microlayer (50-60 microm) and subsurface layer (1m) of coastal waters. The presence of microplastics in sediments and seawater is likely due to on-going waste disposal practices from industries and recreational activities, and discharge from shipping.     

Marine Pollution Prevention and Management in the East Asian Seas: A Paradigm Shift in Concept, Approach and Methodology

A brief analysis of the current situation pertaining to marine pollution prevention and management in the East Asian Seas is outlined, particularly focusing on pollution arising from both land and sea-based sources. This paper highlights the results of a Regional Programme supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in addressing some of the key marine pollution management problems of the region. The Programme has made significant progress in the following areas: (a) successfully developed and tested working models on the application of integrated coastal management (ICM) in addressing land-based sources of pollution; (b) tested risk assessment and risk management methodologies for addressing pollution in the Straits of Malacca; (c) attained commendable records in the ratification of marine pollution-related conventions; (d) developed an operational modality for stronger public and private sector partnerships; (e) demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of marine pollution monitoring programs; (f) focused on capacity building at the local level, and (g) with the above achievements, it has illustrated a paradigm shift in concept, approach and methodology in addressing the mounting environmental pressure caused by increasing marine pollution loads.     

Multi-variate Analysis of Biomarker Responses in Mytilus edulis and Carcinus maenas from the Tees Estuary (UK)

A suite of six biomarkers was measured in shore crabs (Carcinus maenas) and mussels (Mytilus edulis) deployed at, or native to, the Tees Estuary in north-east England, as well as at several control sites. LC-50 tests on water samples from the field sites were carried out using the marine copepod Tisbe battagliai and Microtox™ assays. Biomarker responses varied among the sites. Results were analysed using novel multivariate statistical procedures. A clearer overall picture was obtained from multi-dimensional scaling plots than by examining the data for different biomarkers individually. It was possible to distinguish among contaminated and control sites, with the contaminated sites being further differentiated to reflect a pollution gradient. It was concluded that multi-dimensional scaling procedures are a valuable additional tool for improving the analysis and interpretation of complex suites of biomarker data.     

Benthic foraminifera from two coastal lakes of southern Latium (Italy). Preliminary evaluation of environmental quality

Benthic foraminifera and sediment texture were studied on a total of 37 samples, collected from two brackish-water coastal basins: Fogliano Lake and Lungo Lake (central Italy). The research was performed as a preliminary low-cost survey to highlight the degree of the environmental stress and to recognize a possible anthropogenic disturbance. The sedimentological and foraminiferal data were processed by bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis. Three distinct assemblages, referable to different environments were recognized for the Fogliano Lake: inner, intermediate and outer lagoon. Only the outer lagoon assemblage was found in the Lungo Lake. The distribution of foraminifera in the Fogliano Lake suggests a natural environmental stress probably due to the ecological instability typical of marginal environments, while the absence of the inner and intermediate lagoon assemblages in the Lungo Lake suggests an environmental disturbance possibly related to human activities. An interdisciplinary survey including geochemical analyses is recommended in order to deduce the nature and degree of pollution in the Lungo Lake.     

Effects of high CO2 seawater on the copepod (Acartia tsuensis) through all life stages and subsequent generations

We studied the effects of exposure to seawater equilibrated with CO(2)-enriched air (CO(2) 2380 ppm) from eggs to maturity and over two subsequent generations on the copepod Acartia tsuensis. Compared to the control (CO(2) 380 ppm), high CO(2) exposure through all life stages of the 1st generation copepods did not significantly affect survival, body size or developmental speed. Egg production and hatching rates were also not significantly different between the initial generation of females exposed to high CO(2) and the 1st and 2nd generation females developed from eggs to maturity in high CO(2). Thus, the copepods appear more tolerant to increased CO(2) than other marine organisms previously investigated for CO(2) tolerance (i.e., sea urchins and bivalves). However, the crucial importance of copepods in marine ecosystems requires thorough evaluation of the overall impacts of marine environmental changes predicted to occur with increased CO(2) concentrations, i.e., increased temperature, enhanced UV irradiation, and changes in the community structure and nutritional value of phytoplankton.     

Potential toxicity of resuspended particulate matter and sediments: Environmental samples from the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer and Thermaikos Gulf

This contribution attempts to determine whether, and to what degree, environmental samples of resuspended particulate matter and sediments exert a toxicological impact. Further, an attempt is made also to screen the toxic level of potentially hazardous sites, based upon established sediment toxicity criteria. Therefore, a rapid, cost-effective and highly sensitive biotest (bioluminescence assay, based upon marine bacteria) has been applied on: biological fluid extracts; bottom sediments; and sediment trap samples. Samples were taken either from the Bay of Banyuls-sur-Mer (northwestern Mediterranean, France) or Thermaikos Gulf (northeastern Mediterranean, Greece). Biological fluid extracts and sediment trap samples corresponded to periods of resuspension events, or preceding and following such events.The results have revealed that the sampling strategy and biotest implemented in this study might be a useful tool for screening the toxicity of resuspended matter and sediments. Resuspension events appear to be able to exert an influence on the chemical forms of the micro-pollutants; thus on their bioavailability and toxicity. Nevertheless, based upon chemical analysis combined with the bioassay, the toxic level of the sediment samples could be determined, with the level at potentially hazardous sites being characterised.