A surge of Perseibreen, Svalbard, examined using aerial photography and ASTER high resolution satellite imagery

The identification of surge activity is important in assessing the duration of the active and quiescent phases of the surge cycle of Svalbard glaciers. Satellite and aerial photographic images are used to identify and describe the form and flow of Perseibreen, a valley glacier of 59 km² on the east coast of Spitsbergen. Heavy surface crevassing and a steep ice front, indicative of surge activity, were first observed on Perseibreen in April 2002. Examination of high resolution (15 m) Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) satellite imagery confirmed this surge activity. Perseibreen retreated by almost 750 m between 1961 and 1990. Between 1990 and the summer of 2000, Perseibreen switched from retreat and its front began to advance. Rapid advance was underway during the period June 2000 to May 2001, with terminus advance at over 400 m yr⁻¹. Between May and August 2001 the rate increased to over 750 m yr⁻¹. The observed crevasse orientation indicates that ice was in longitudinal tension, suggesting the down-glacier transfer of mass. Ice surface velocities, derived from image correlation between ASTER images, were 2-2.5 m d⁻¹ between May and August 2001. The glacier was flowing at a relatively uniform speed with sharp velocity gradients located close to its lateral margins, a velocity structure typical of ice masses in the active phase of the surge cycle. The stress regime is extensional throughout and the surge appears to be initiated low on the glacier. This is similar to the active-phase dynamics of other Svalbard tidewater glaciers. Perseibreen has probably been inactive since at least 1870, a period of about 130 years to the present surge which defines a minimum length for the quiescent phase.     

Storsteinsfjellbreen: Variations in Mass Balance from the 1960s to the 1990s

When the Norwegian State Power Board decided to plan an extensive water power development in the mountainous areas southeast of Narvik in northern Norway, a large mapping project was started. Detailed maps were constructed at a scale of 1:10 000 from aerial photographs taken in 1960. Several hydrometric stations were installed, and three glaciers were selected for mass balance observations. Storsteinsfjellbreen was the largest of these, and a special glacier map with 10 m contours was printed in four colours, to be used in the field work. Mass balance studies were carried out initially during one 5-year period (1964–68), and also later during another 5-year period (1991–95).
Results from these periods are compared with similar data from the Swedish glacier Storglaciären, about 45 km to the southeast. For all the years except one (1968), the net balance of these glaciers shows a similar pattern: positive years and negative years are synchronous.
A new glacier map was made from a special aerial survey in 1993 at the same scale and of similar accuracy as the first map, so a comparison could be made to calculate the change in glacier volume from 1960 to 1993. From digital terrain models it could be shown that the glacier surface had dropped more than 60 m vertically on the tongue, while the thickness increased above the equilibrium line by up to 20 m. The overall mass loss amounted to 16.8×10⁶ m³ water during 33 years, which corresponds to an extra 2.6 l·s⁻¹·km⁻² (litres per sec. per sq. km) delivered to the river, in addition to the "normal" discharge
due to annual precipitation, which is 36 l·s⁻¹·km⁻² in the area.
A copy of the new glacier map is enclosed with this article.     

东帕米尔高原昆盖山跃动冰川遥感监测研究

冰川跃动是冰川周期性地快速运动,给下游生命财产安全带来巨大威胁。对已经发现的跃动冰川进行监测不仅有助于提高对冰川跃动机理的认识,而且对冰川跃动灾害预警预报和风险评估都具有重要的意义。在中国第二次冰川编目中发现,1963-2009年东帕米尔高原昆盖山的5Y663L0023冰川末端发生大幅前进。本文利用Landsat影像、ASTER立体像对等数据对该冰川前进过程进行监测研究。结果表明：该冰川于1990-1992年和2007-2013年分别前进81±30 m和811±30 m,其中2007-2013年的前进属于跃动引发的前进。其中跃动最高峰在2007年8月21日-2008年10月26日,期间32.7×10⁶ m³的冰体发生卸载,导致末端前进了704±30 m,面积扩张了0.34 km²。针对东帕米尔地区跃动冰川周期研究的空白,本文认为该冰川跃动周期中跃动期为4 a,平静期最短为15 a左右。该冰川属于多温型冰川,跃动受热力学机制影响的可能性较大,但液态降水、冰雪融水的增加也是影响因素。     

Moraine Formation at an Advancing Temperate Glacier: Brigsdalsbreen, Western Norway

Owing to increased winter balances especially since AD 1988/89, almost all valley outlet glaciers of Jostedalsbreen in western Norway are experiencing the largest advance since that of the early 18th century, the regional "Little Ice Age" maximum. Brigsdalsbreen advanced 441 m between 1987 and 1997. By the end of this period, the glacier had reached the outlet of the proglacial lake Brigsdalsvatnet, ploughing into unfrozen, fine-grained, water-soaked glaciolimnic sediments from the lake bottom and forming frontal moraines. These moraines are characterised by a lack of internal structures and preferred fabric. Owing to the strong advance, the moraine morphology is constantly changing, leaving only temporary moraine ridges.
Observations made along the glacier front suggest that the formation of these moraines can best be described as "bulldozed moraines", since the term push moraine, commonly associated with advancing glaciers, should be restricted to permafront environments. Different processes involved in moraine formation at frontal and lateral glacier margins result from variations in proglacial sediment properties, microrelief and glacier dynamics. Among these processes, large boulders left in the proglacial areas are pushed forward, forming pressure ridges on the distal side. Some of the largest boulders ( c . 80–120 m³) are overturned or rotated by the glacier.     

1990-2011年西昆仑峰区冰川变化的遥感监测

本文应用Landsat 5、7 TM、ETM+影像分析1990-2011年昆仑山西段昆仑峰区冰川变化特征,结果表明:1990-2011年冰川面积减少16.83 km²,退缩率仅为0.65%,冰川退缩趋势不明显。单条冰川变化有进有退,中峰冰川末端在2002-2004年以661 m/a的速率前进,初步判定为跃动冰川。1991-1998年,崇测冰川面积增加9.47 km²,冰川末端以200 m/a的速率前进,不排除有跃动冰川的可能性。尽管近年来全球气温普遍上升,大量冰川处于退缩状态,但统计已有研究结果发现近50年来青藏高原存在冰川长度、面积增加,冰川物质平衡为正的现象,表现出冰川对气候变化复杂的反馈机制。通过分析气象站点和冰芯资料,研究区周边地区气温上升、降水量缓慢增加可能是冰川微弱退缩的原因之一;增强的西风环流带来更多的降水、研究区以极大陆型大规模冰川为主,也可能是冰川退缩幅度较小的原因。     

1970-2016年冈底斯山冰川变化

基于修订后的中国两次冰川编目数据及2015-2016年Landsat OLI遥感影像,对冈底斯山1970-2016年的冰川时空变化特征进行分析,并利用相应时段的气温和降水数据,对冰川变化原因进行探讨,为全面认识冈底斯山在气候变暖背景下冰川的响应规律及区域水资源合理利用提供科学依据。结果表明：① 2015-2016年冈底斯山共有冰川3953条,面积1306.45 km ²,冰储量约58.16 km ³;冰川数量以面积< 0.5 km ²的冰川为主,面积则以介于0.1~5 km ²的冰川为主。② 1970-2016年冈底斯山冰川面积共减少854.05 km ²（-39.53%）,冰川面积变化相对速率高达-1.09%/a,消融期气温升高是导致该山区冰川退缩的最主要原因。与中国西部其他山系冰川变化相比,冈底斯山是冰川退缩最为强烈的地区,且近年来冰川退缩呈加快趋势。③ 冈底斯山冰川面积减少主要集中在海拔5600~6100 m之间,海拔6500 m以上区域基本没有变化。除南朝向和东南朝向外,冈底斯山其他朝向冰川数量和面积均呈减少趋势,其中北朝向冰川面积减少最多,西北朝向冰川面积变化最快。④ 冈底斯山冰川面积变化自西向东呈加快趋势,其中东段冰川面积变化相对速率高达-1.72%/a,中段次之（-1.67%/a）,西段仅为-0.83%/a。     

A surge of Skobreen, Svalbard

Surging glaciers are common in Svalbard yet relatively few glaciers have been observed during a surge. This paper presents observations of the currently surging glacier Skobreen, in southern Spitsbergen. The study is based on examinations of new and archival photographs and maps. Skobreen, an 18 km² valley glacier terminating into the lower part of the glacier Paulabreen, has not been registered previously as a surging glacier. Skobreen experienced a build-up in its upper part, while there has been a lowering of the surface in the terminal region. Photographs from 1990 show incipient crevassing in the upper part. Photographs from 2003 show a slight advance of the terminus and marginal crevassing, indicating an initiation period of about 15 years for a surge of this glacier. In June 2005 transverse crevassing appeared in the upper part of the glacier, while the middle section moved as a block with strong shear margins and a pronounced drawdown of the ice surface. No traces of a surge front could be seen in the crevasse pattern. However, the crevasse pattern indicates an initiation area in the transition zone between the transverse crevassing in the upper part and the block of ice in the middle region.     

Seismic moment release during slab rupture beneath the Banda Sea

The highest intermediate depth moment release rates in Indonesia occur in the slab beneath the largely submerged segment of the Banda arc in the Banda Sea to the east of Roma, termed the Damar Zone. The most active, western-part of this zone is characterized by downdip extension, with moment release rates (∼10¹⁸ Nm yr^–1 per 50 km strike length) implying the slab is stretching at ∼10⁻¹⁴ s⁻¹ consistent with near complete slab decoupling across the 100–200 km depth range. Differential vertical stretching along the length of the Damar Zone is consistent with a slab rupture front at ∼100–200 km depth beneath Roma propagating eastwards at ∼100 km Myr^–1. Complexities in the slab deformation field are revealed by a narrow zone of anomalous in-plane P -axis trends beneath Damar, where subhorizontal constriction suggests extreme stress concentrations ∼100 km ahead of the slab rupture front. Such stress concentrations may explain the anomalously deep ocean gateways in this region, in which case ongoing slab rupture may have played a key role in modulating the Indonesian throughflow in the Banda Sea over the last few million years.     

近50年新疆天山奎屯河流域冰川变化及其对水资源的影响

基于地形图、遥感影像、气象与水文资料,对气候变化背景下奎屯河流域近50 a冰川变化及其对水资源的影响进行了研究。结果表明：1964~2015年该流域冰川面积减小了约65.4 km²,冰储量亏损了约4.39 km³,且2000年后冰川消融与退缩加快。消融期内正积温增大带来的冰川物质支出（消融）高于源自年内降水的冰川物质收入（积累）是造成该流域冰川消融与退缩的主要原因。1964~2010年该流域径流年际变化总体呈上升趋势,1993年后径流增加趋势显著,且周期性丰枯变化发生了改变。52 a间该流域冰储量亏损引发的水资源损失量达39.5×10⁸m³,年均亏损量约占多年平均径流量的12%,且20世纪80年代后冰川融水在径流中所占比重增大。     

A Mass Balance Model that Uses Low-altitude Meteorological Observations and the Area–Altitude Distribution of a Glacier

A glacier mass balance model that requires only low-altitude precipitation and temperature observations and the glacier's areaaltitude distribution is presented as an alternative to direct field measurements. Input to the model for South Cascade Glacier are daily weather observations at stations 30–60 km from the glacier and at altitudes 1300 to 1500 m lower than the glacier. The model relies on the internal consistency of mass balance variables that are generated by simulation using the low-altitude weather data. The daily values of such balance variables as snowline altitude, zero balance altitude, glacier balance, balance flux and the accumulation area ratio are correlated throughout the ablation season using two-degree polynomial regressions to obtain the lowest fitting error. When the minimum average error (or maximum R ²) is attained, the generated balances and other variables are considered to be real. A simplex optimization technique is used to determine the optimal coefficient values that are used in algorithms to convert meteorological observations to snow accumulation and snow and ice ablation. The independently produced simulation results for the 1959–1996 period are compared with balances measured at the glacier. The agreement between annual balances for individual years is fair and between long-term volume changes measured by the geodetic method is excellent.     

Shallow velocity structure along the Hirapur–Mandla profile using traveltime inversion of wide-angle seismic data, and its tectonic implications

In order to investigate the velocity structure, and hence shed light on the related tectonics, across the Narmada–Son lineament, traveltimes of wide-angle seismic data along the 240 km long Hirapur–Mandla profile in central India have been inverted. A blocky, laterally heterogeneous, three-layer velocity model down to a depth of 10 km has been derived. The first layer shows a maximum thickness of the upper Vindhyans (4.5 km s⁻¹ ) of about 1.35 km and rests on top of normal crystalline basement, represented by the 5.9 km s⁻¹ velocity layer. The anomalous feature of the study is the absence of normal granitic basement in the great Vindhyan Graben, where lower Vindhyan sediments (5.3 km s⁻¹ ) were deposited during the Precambrian on high-velocity (6.3 km s⁻¹ ) metamorphic rock. The block beneath the Narmada–Son lineament represents a horst feature in which high-velocity (6.5 km s⁻¹ ) lower crustal material has risen to a depth of less than 2 km. South of the lineament, the Deccan Traps were deposited on normal basement during the upper Cretaceous period and attained a maximum thickness of about 800 m.     

Crustal structure of the Mid-Atlantic ridge crest at 37° N

Summary. A structural model of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 37° N is proposed on the basis of travel-time data and synthetic seismograms. At the ridge axis the crust is only 3 km thick and overlies material with an anomalously low'upper mantle'velocity of 7.2 km s⁻¹. Crustal thickening and the formation of layer 3 and a layer with velocity 7.2–7.3 km s⁻¹ takes place within a few kilometres of the axis, producing a 6–7 km thick crust by less than 10 km from the axis. A normal upper mantle velocity of 8.1 km s⁻¹ exists within 10 km of the axis. Shear waves propagate across the axis, thus precluding the existence of any sizeable magma chamber at shallow depth.     

1959年来中国天山冰川资源时空变化

基于两期冰川编目数据与气象数据,对天山1959年来冰川资源的时空变化特征进行研究。研究发现：① 天山地区现有冰川7934条,面积7179.77 km²,冰储量756.48 km³。冰川数量以面积< 1 km²的冰川居多,面积以1~10 km²和≥ 20 km²的冰川为主,冰川集中分布在海拔3800~4800 m之间。② 在四级流域中,阿克苏河流域冰川面积最大为1721.75 km²,面积最小的是伊吾河流域,为56.03 km²。在各市（州）中,阿克苏地区冰川资源量最多,其面积和储量分别占天山总量的43.28%和68.85%;冰川资源量最少的市（州）是吐鲁番地区,面积和储量仅占天山总量的0.23%和0.07%。③ 1959年来,天山地区冰川面积减少了1619.82 km²（-18.41%）,储量亏损了104.78 km³（-12.16%）,其中数量以< 1 km²的冰川减少最多,面积减少以< 5 km²的冰川最为严重。④ 冰川变化呈现明显的区域差异,变化速度最快的是天山东段博格达北坡流域,变化最慢的是中部的渭干河流域。初步分析认为夏季气温显著上升带来的消融大于年内降水带来的积累是天山冰川退缩的主要原因。     

Geodetic observations of ice flow velocities over the southern part of subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica, and their glaciological implications

In the austral summer seasons 2001/02 and 2002/03, Global Positioning System (GPS) data were collected in the vicinity of Vostok Station to determine ice flow velocities over Lake Vostok. Ten GPS sites are located within a radius of 30 km around Vostok Station on floating ice as well as on grounded ice to the east and to the west of the lake. Additionally, a local deformation network around the ice core drilling site 5G-1 was installed.
The derived ice flow velocity for Vostok Station is  2.00 m a⁻¹± 0.01 m a⁻¹  . Along the flowline of Vostok Station an extension rate of about 10⁻⁵ a⁻¹ (equivalent to 1 cm km⁻¹ a⁻¹) was determined. This significant velocity gradient results in a new estimate of 28 700 years for the transit time of an ice particle along the Vostok flowline from the bedrock ridge in the southwest of the lake to the eastern shoreline. With these lower velocities compared to earlier studies and, hence, larger transit times the basal accretion rate is estimated to be 4 mm a⁻¹ along a portion of the Vostok flowline. An assessment of the local accretion rate at Vostok Station using the observed geodetic quantities yields an accretion rate in the same order of magnitude. Furthermore, the comparison of our geodetic observations with results inferred from ice-penetrating radar data indicates that the ice flow may not have changed significantly for several thousand years.     

Mass balance and changes of surface slope, crevasse and flow pattern of Erikbreen, northern Spitsbergen: an application of a geographical information system (GIS)

The polythcrmal valley glacier Erikbreen (79°40'N 12°30'E), northern Spitsbergen, was investigated in 1970 and 1990 using digital photogrammetry and digital elevation model (DEM) techniques. The bottom topography was derived from radio-echo soundings. Based on the DEM, mass balance and changes of surface slope, crevasse and flow pattern were evaluated, and internal ice deformation velocities were calculated. Calculations of the total mass balance show that Erikbreen has not been in equilibrium for the last 20 years. The average surface lowering was 0.38 m/a and the volume had decreased by 5% to 6% from 1970 to 1990 or on the average by 3.5 × 10⁻¹ water. The glacier surface subsided over the whole glacier area except in minor areas with northfacing slopes in the accumulation area. The surface slope and the crevasse pattern, however, did not change significantly during the 20-year-period, except in areas below 100 ma.s.l.     

Ivrea seismic array: a study of continental crust and upper mantle

A seismic-array study of the continental crust and upper mantle in the Ivrea-Yerbano and Strona-Ceneri zones (northwestern Italy) is presented. A short-period network is used to define crustal P - and S -wave velocity models from earthquakes. The analysis of the seismic-refraction profile LOND of the CROP-ECORS project provided independent information and control on the array-data interpretation.
Apparent-velocity measurements from both local and regional earthquakes, and time-term analysis are used to estimate the velocity in the lower crust and in the upper mantle. The geometry of the upper-lower crust and Moho boundaries is determined from the station delay times.
We have obtained a three-layer crustal seismic model. The P -wave velocity in the upper crust, lower crust and upper mantle is 6.1±0.2 km s⁻¹, 6.5±0.3 km s⁻¹ and 7.8±0.3 km s⁻¹ respectively. Pronounced low-velocity zones in the upper and lower crust are not observed. A clear change in the velocity structure between the upper and lower crust is documented, constraining the petrological interpretation of the Ivrea-type reflective lower continental crust derived from small-scale petrophysical data. Moreover, we found a V _P/ V _S ratio of 1.69±0.04 for the upper crust and 1.82±0.08 for the lower crust and upper mantle. This is consistent with the structural and petrophysical differences between a compositionally uniform and seismically transparent upper crust and a layered and reflective lower crust. The thickness of the lower crust ranges from about 8 km in front of the Ivrea body (ARVO, Arvonio station) in the northern part of the array to a maximum of about 15 km in the southern part of the array. The lower crust reaches a minimum depth of 5 km below the PROV (Provola) station.     

Thermal regime of a valley glacier, Erikbreen, northern Spitsbergen

The thermal regime of the valley glacier, Erikbreen, northern Spitsbergen (79°40'N, 12°30'E) was studied using radio-echo sounding and temperature measurements from eight boreholes ranging from 13.5 to 24 m. Radar images indicate a glacier with a two-layered thermal structure. A surface layer of cold ice, 20 to 60 m thick along the centre flow line, extends from an altitude above equilibrium line to the glacier front. This layer represents 20 to 35% of the glacier thickness, except at the floating front, where the cold layer is about 50%. The ice beneath the cold surface layer is interpreted to be temperate. Cold-based areas exist near the glacier margin and in some locations in the accumulation area; the ice is interpreted to be entirely temperate in central parts of the accumulation area at high altitude. Freezing of temperate ice at the base of the cold surface layer is probably the main mechanism of cold ice formation in the frontal parts of Erikbreen. Calculated heat fluxes based on the borehole measurements show that a steady state cold layer 25 to 30 m thick is likely, assuming a surface melting of 1.7 m/y and a maximum water content of 3%. In the frontal parts the calculated mean annual upward heat flux at 10 to 15 m depth is roughly 0.6 W/m².     

近20年天山地区冰湖变化特征

主要基于Landsat TM/ETM+影像等数据,分析1990-2010 年来天山地区冰湖变化特征及其对冰川融水径流的影响。近20 年来,天山冰湖面积平均以0.689 km²a^-1 或0.8% a^-1的速度扩张,其中一半以上是由东天山(0.352 km² a^-1) 贡献的,其次为北天山,面积年均增率为0.165km² a^-1,西天山和中央天山的面积年均增率最小,分别为0.089 km² a^-1和0.083 km² a^-1。除在相对较低海拔(< 2900 m) 和高海拔(> 4100 m) 范围内冰湖面积出现减少的现象,其他各高度带的冰湖面积均在扩张,其中增率最快的在3500~3900 m之间,平均增速达1.6% a^-1。冰湖扩张是本区气候变暖和冰川普遍退缩共同作用的结果,以中小规模的冰湖(< 0.6 km²) 对冰川退缩响应最为敏感。冰湖扩张能在一定程度上延缓因气候变暖而导致的区域冰川水资源的亏损,每年大约有0.006 Gt 的冰川融水滞留在冰湖中,约占天山冰川年消融量的2‰,但也将加剧本区冰湖溃决洪水/泥石流灾害的频次和强度。     

Glacier changes in the Qaidam Basin from 1977 to 2018

Based on Landsat MSS/TM/OLI remote sensing images, glaciers vector data in the Qaidam Basin were extracted for 1977, 2002, and 2018, and their spatial-temporal variations were analyzed. Results show that there were 2,050 glaciers covering an area of 1,693.54±40.96 km² and having an ice volume of 108.65±2.43 km³ in the Qaidam Basin in 2018. Glaciers with areas <1.0 km² accounted for the largest number, while glaciers with areas of 1.0-5.0 km² accounted for the most glacierized area. In the past 50 years, the number of glaciers decreased by 177, and the glacier area and volume reduced by 338.08 km² (-8.12 km²/a) and 19.92 km³ (-0.48 km³/a), respectively. Retreat altitudes of glaciers were concentrated at 4,900-5,600 m, 4,700-5,200 m, and 5,000-5,600 m and reduced areas accounted for 95.53%, 77.80%, and 69.19% in the Kunlun, Qilian, and Altun mountains, respectively. The area of north-oriented glaciers decreased the most (-125.43 km²), but the west- and east-oriented glaciers retreated at the fastest rate (i.e., -27.11% and -27.10%). All glaciers showed a decreasing trend in sub-regions of the Qaidam Basin from 1977 to 2018. The decreasing trend was accelerated gradually from northwest to southeast in the northern part of the basin, while glacier change was the smallest in the middle section and gradually accelerated towards both ends of the basin's southern part. The temperature had continued to rise, and the precipitation had increased slowly in the Qaidam Basin during the past 50 years. The continuous rise in air temperature was the main reason for the retreat of glaciers.     

Explosive volcanic eruptions — V. Observations of plume dynamics during the 1979 Soufrière eruption, St Vincent

Summary During the 1979 eruption of the Soufrière of St Vincent, West Indies, a 14 min period of explosive activity occurred on April 22. The first three minutes of this activity were filmed. Five individual explosions formed distinct plumes which fed an eruption column which eventually ascended to a height of over 18 km. The ascent velocities of the fronts of these plumes ranged from 8.5 to 61.7 ms^-1. The half-angle of spreading of the plume fronts ranged from 21.5 to 24°. One of the plumes was observed to 8 km height and decelerated steadily from 51.5 to 23 ms^-1. The main column fed by individual explosions was, however, observed to accelerate from 8.5 to 58 m s^-1 in the same height interval.
A theoretical treatment of volcanic plume motion is presented. Measurements of dimensions, velocities and spreading rates from the film are used to estimate plume parameters such as temperature, particle content and volume discharge rate of magma from the theoretical relationships. These calculations show that the individual plumes became hotter and richer in juvenile ash with time. The acceleration of the main eruption column was the result of being fed by increasingly hotter and more ash-rich explosions. An average volume discharge rate of 12600m³ s^-1 is estimated from the analysis of the plume motions. This value agrees closely with an estimate of discharge rate based on the heat flux required to form an 18 km high column. This agreement suggests that theories of convective motions in plumes can be successfully adapted to the volcanic case, as long as the effect of hot entrained ash particles is considered.