Regional policy in Cameroon: The case of planning without facts

Cameroon's economic development is without doubt a story of success. Since independence, the country has been favoured by internal and external advantages but, as in most African countries south of the Sahara, the results of regional development policies — in spite of an existing and sound planning structure — are disappointing. Cameroon was always well-provided with the now fashionable ‘integrated’, ‘basic need-oriented’, ‘bottom-up’ and ‘development-from-within’ regional policy programmes. In discussing such a programme and proposing elements of a modified development strategy, it can, however, be argued that even the first step of creating a basic regional development project has been far from satisfactory. Further, in spite of government rhetoric, no regional development policy as normally defined exists. What does exist are regional effects of development projects. This prompts the question of whether it may be preferable to replace the term ‘regional development policy’, and to return to a ‘regionally based, comprehensively planned, project policy’, based on facts which first have to be collected and analysed.     

Chemical and isotopic characteristics of fluids along the Cameroon Volcanic Line, Cameroon

Results of the chemical and isotopic analysis of the water and gases discharged from volcanic crater lakes and soda springs located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line were used to characterize and infer their genetic relationships. Variations in the solute compositions of the waters indicate the dominant influence of silicate hydrolysis. Na⁺ (40–95%) constitutes the major cation in the springs while Fe²⁺ + Mg²⁺ (70%) dominate in the CO₂-rich lakes. The principal anion is HCO₃ (>90%), except in the coastal springs where Cl-predominates. Lakes Nyos and Monoun have FeMgCaHCO₃⁻ type signatures; the soda springs are essentially NaHCO₃⁻ type, while all other lakes show similar ionic compositions to dilute surface waters. Dissolved gases show essentially CO₂ (>90%), with small amounts of Ar and N₂, while CH₄ constitutes the principal component in the non-gassy lakes. Active volcanic gases are generally absent, except in the Lobe spring with detectable H₂S. Stable isotope ratio evidence indicates that the bicarbonate waters are essentially of meteoric origin. CO₂ (δ¹³C = −2 to −8%₀ and He (³He/⁴He = 1 to 5.6R_a) infer a mantle contribution to the total CO₂. CH₄ has a biogenic source, while Ar and N₂ are essentially atmospheric in origin, but mixing is quite common.     

Taming the killer lakes of Cameroon

A chain of volcanoes, some of them still active, extends from the Atlantic Ocean into the highlands of Cameroon. Mount Cameroon, located at the edge of the continent, erupted in 1999 and 2000 and spewed lava part-way down its flanks, cutting off a coastal road. A number of the now extinct (or dormant) volcanic craters on the continental part of the line are filled with water, forming crater lakes. These lakes have achieved mythical status in local tribal lore. Lacking a written history, prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, much of our understanding of past natural phenomena relating to the lakes is based on these myths.     

Typology of Natural Hazards and Assessment of Associated Risks in the Mount Bambouto Caldera (Cameroon Line,West Cameroon)

Abstract: Mount Bambouto is a polygenic stratovolcano of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, built between 21?Ma and 4.5?Ma. It is situated approximately 200?km NE of Mount Cameroon, between 09°55′ and 10°15′ longitude east and, 05°25′ and 05°50′ latitude north. The volcano covers an area of 500?km2 and culminates at 2740?m at Mélétan dome and bears a collapsed caldera at the summit (13?×?8?km). Mount Bambouto is characterized by several natural hazards of different origins: meteorological, such as landslides and rock falls; anthropogenic, such as bushfires, tribal wars and deforestation; and volcanological, such as volcanic eruption. The thematic map shows that 55–60% of the caldera has high probability of occurrence of mass movement. The caldera has a high population density (3000 inhabitants), which increases the level of risk, evaluated at approximately $US3.8 million for patrimony, 3000 civilian deaths and destruction of biodiversity.     

Typology of Natural Hazards and Assessment of Associated Risks in the Mount Bambouto Caldera(Cameroon Line,West Cameroon)

Mount Bambouto is a polygenic stratovolcano of the Cameroon Volcanic Line,built between 21 Ma and 4.5 Ma.It is situated approximately 200 km NE of Mount Cameroon,between 09°55′and 10°15′longitude east and,05°25′and 05°50′latitude north.The volcano covers an area of 500 km~2 and culminates at 2740 m at Meletan dome and bears a collapsed caldera at the summit (13×8 km).Mount Bambouto is characterized by several natural hazards of different origins: meteorological,such as landslides and rock falls;anthropog...     

Olivine chemistry from Cameroon: evidence of carbonate metasomatism along the ocean-continental boundary of the Cameroon volcanic line

Mineralogy and Petrology - We report olivine chemistry in basaltic rocks from the Mt. Cameroon Volcanic area, which is used as a proxy to understand mantle and early igneous processes along the...     

Earthquake swarms of Mt Cameroon, West Africa

Historical and recent instrumental studies of the central region of the Cameroon Volcanic Line clearly indicate the occurrence of earthquake swarms of volcanic origin. Analyses of more than 3000 micro-earthquakes recorded between 1985 and 1992 show a well-defined seismic pattern characterised by single and swarm events with duration magnitudes between 2 and 3 at depths down to 20 km. On average, the earthquakes here occur at the rate of about 2 events every 3 days with occasional earthquake swarms, which greatly increase this number. The seismic swarms comprising felt earthquakes are shown to be sometimes preceded by, simultaneous with, or followed by swarms from Bimbia and Equatorial Guinea. Mapped epicentres of some of these swarms correspond to regions of volcanic gas emissions and are parallel to the fissures on Mt Cameroon and to the inferred direction of the underlying shear zone.The quiescent periods between swarms are seen to double each year since 1986. This observation was used to predict a major seismic swarm which occurred in 1993. The data coupled with historical data, are used to infer the involvement of a magma chamber in the generation of the earthquake swarms in the region. Since the installation of the network, no eruption has been observed on Mt Cameroon. This warrants more observation in order to study the seismicity that may precede, accompany or follow an eruption of the mountain.     

On the black cotton soils of North Cameroon

During detailed geotechnical prospecting in North Cameroon, extensive black cotton soil deposits were encountered. Based on classification tests, three samples were selected for mineralogical analysis. The results indicated that the predominant clay mineral was the halloysite governing the geotechnical properties and behaviour of the cotton soils. New correlations were established between clay mineral content and Atterberg limits of the investigated materials.     

Bottom ash of trees from Cameroon as fertilizer

Utilization of wood bottom ash as fertilizer additive contributes to the return of valuable nutrients to agricultural soils, especially when no artificial mineral fertilizer is being used. In general, wood combustion ash is enriched in calcium and potash, and may also contain elevated amounts of zinc, but the concentrations of these elements depend on tree species, part of the tree, harvest season and local soil type. In this study, bottom ash samples from eight different agricultural wood species from Cameroon, Africa were investigated by using X-ray diffraction and atomic absorption spectroscopy to determine the refractory components and the concentrations of selected heavy metals and arsenic. Results show calcite, potassium salts, periclase and quartz as major components. These phase contents were used to calculate major element concentrations, which were subsequently validated by X-ray-fluorescence analysis. The chemical compositions varied within the range of common compositions of wood ashes. Six of the ashes reached sufficient concentrations of calcium to be defined as a “calcium fertilizer”. Pb contents are most variable, ranging from 0.03 to 21.1 mg/kg. Concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and As are all lower than the strictest limit concentrations required for wood ash fertilizers and therefore, the studied wood ashes can be used without environmental concern.     

Assessment of Lateritic Gravelled Materials for Use in Road Pavements in Cameroon

Geotechnical and Geological Engineering - Early surface and structural deterioration of new pavements are becoming increasingly perceptible in Cameroon. This raises serious concerns regarding the...     

The concept of self-reliance in community development initiatives in the Cameroon grassfields

The Grassfields of Cameroon is a fertile ground for self-help efforts. This paper examines the resurgence and role Village Development Associations (VDAs) are playing in national and community development. Community members are increasingly shouldering the adverse consequences of the economic downturn and the growing inability of the state to provide economic and social development by initiating, mobilising and galvanising their own resources in the quest for improving their standard of living. The reliance on indigenous technology and local human resources has led to overwhelming popular participation in community- driven development. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Participatory forestry as a strategy for reforestation in Bangladesh

Deforestation has been a serious ecological problem in Bangladesh for the past four decades. Illegal logging, demand for fuelwood and farmland encroachment are the principal causes of dwindling biomass resource. About 17.8% of the total area of the country are under forest cover (BBS 1993), but less than half of that area are under real tree formations. It is estimated that Bangladesh loses its forest lands by about 3.3% every year (World Bank 1994). This paper attempts to present a review of a newer strategy to meet this challenge; a strategy, not merely of halting deforestation, but of reforestation on a national scale and through people's participation in the process.In response to the crisis in the forestry sector, traditional government forest management programs have been replaced by participatory forestry in recent years as the principal strategy for reforestation. This change in strategy has two goals (1) encourage new plantations, and (2) generate income and create jobs for the rural poor. Participatory forestry is a benefit sharing scheme in which the landless and the marginal farmers are employed in tree plantation work.     

Ni-Co sulphide segregation in the Mamb pyroxenite intrusion, Cameroon

The amphibole metapyroxenite intrusion from Mamb (Cameroon) consists of enstatite, diopside-augite, edenite, and traces of plagioclase, biotite and rutile. It contains notable amounts of sulphides (pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and Co-rich violarite). The sulphide phase segregated during magma crystallization as immiscible droplets (≤ 1 mm) included in growing ferromagnesian minerals or aggregated in the silicate crystal mush to form an interstitial phase. However, observed sulphide assemblages are likely to result from low-T (≤ 300 °C) re-equilibration of high-T monosulphide solid solutions, more particularly during the Pan-African metamorphic event. The Mamb amphibole pyroxenite intrusion is tentatively considered as a potential source for Ni and Co mineralization.     

Systematic documentation of landslide events in Limbe area (Mt Cameroon Volcano,SW Cameroon): geometry,controlling, and triggering factors

Limbe town and surrounding areas, on the SE foot slopes of the active Mt Cameroon Volcano, have experienced numerous small-scale shallow landslides within the last 20 years. These resulted in the loss of ~30 lives and significant damage to farmland and properties. Landslides and their scars are identified in the field, and their geometry systematically measured to construct a landslide inventory map for the study area. Specific landslides are investigated in detail to identify site-specific controlling and triggering factors. This is to constrain key input parameters and their variability for subsequent susceptibility and risk modeling, for immediate local and regional applications in land-use planning. It will also enable a rapid exploration of remediation strategies that are currently lacking in the SW and NW regions of Cameroon. Typical slides within the study area are small-scale, shallow, translational earth, and debris slides though some rotational earth slides were also documented. The depletion zones have mean widths of 22 m ± 16.7 m and lengths of 25 ± 23 standard deviation. Estimated aerial extents of landslide scars and volume of generated debris range from 10¹ to 10⁴ m² and 2 to 5 × 10⁴ m³, respectively. A key finding is that most slope instabilities within the study area are associated with and appear to be exacerbated by man-made factors such as excavation, anarchical construction, and deforestation of steep slopes. High intensity rainfall notably during localized storms is the principal triggering factor identified so far. The findings from this case study have relevance to understanding some key aspects of locally devastating slope instabilities that commonly occur on intensely weathered steep terrains across subtropical Africa and in the subtropics worldwide and affecting an ever denser and most vulnerable population.     

Vulnerability of water resources in northern Cameroon in the context of climate change

Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices, unsustainable use of water resources, increased demand of water, deforestation, land-use change, etc., (2) human-induced climate change. Northern Cameroon in this study includes: the Adamawa, North and Far North regions located closer to the Sahel regions of Africa. These regions are already water stressed because of their location and any further change in climate with rising temperature would impact water resource either positively or negatively. Time series analysis and a 12-month standardized precipitation index (SPI12) with digital data between 1957 and 2006 were used to investigate the variation of water resources in northern Cameroon. Results obtained varies between the different regions with an increased annual trend in temperature and precipitation for Ngaoundere (Adamawa region) and Garoua (north region), whereas Maroua (far north region) had a decreased annual trend in both precipitation and temperature. Further variability results obtained from a SPI12 show that wetter period out number drought period in all three regions. The study concluded that water resources vary with the changing climatic condition and the severity of the impact varies from region to region. Furthermore, water deficiency in northern Cameroon might not be due to climate change. The reasons might be a combination of poor water management and other factors such population growth, the environmental condition, etc.     

Issues in public policy evaluation: the case of regional policy

This paper notes the recent growth of public policy evaluation studies and pays particular attention to those policies with avowed spatial objectives. It seeks to establish the general nature of these diverse studies and their relationship to geographical analysis. A case study examining the evaluation of regional policy in the U.K. is used to demonstrate the nature of the issues in public policy evaluation and to explore the role of geography in the rapidly growing domain, known most commonly as ‘policy analysis’.     

Approaches to sustainable forestry in the Piatra Craiului National Park

Declared in 1990, the Piatra Craiului is one of Romania's 15 national parks and biosphere reserves. It has exceptional scenic and biodiversity value but is under threat from unsustainable agricultural, forestry and tourism management. The paper examines these threats in a historical context, regarding both the growth of the town of Braşov and areas of dispersed rural settlement on the mountain edge, and argues that a sustainable future will require negotiation between the park authorities and all stakeholders, including the local communities and private woodland owners who have benefited or will benefit from restitution. The way forward is explored with forest management in a central role. First, the certification of woodlands, along with the establishment of forest user groups and community woodlands, should help to reconcile the conflicting interests in the woodlands and in wood processing in support of sustainability. Second, the overgrazing of the meadows which is degrading the pastures, restricting forest regeneration and conflicting with large carnivore conservation, could be moderated by the growth of ecotourism linked with bears and wolves which would generate a new source of income to compensate farmers for reducing their flocks – given the importance of the biodiversity resources and the socio-economic pressures – and the paper therefore considers how new approaches to forest management might provide a basis for conservation and sustainable development. It will be for the recently-established national park management system – developed with World Bank Global Environment Facility funding – to take these ideas forward in due course. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Geochemistry of the Bafoussam Pan-African I- and S-type granitoids in western Cameroon

The Bafoussam area in western Cameroon is part of the Central African Orogenic Belt. It is dominated by granitoids which belong to the Pan-African syn- to post-collisional post-650 Ma group. Syenogranites are predominant, but alkali-feldspar granite, monzogranite, quartz-monzonite and quartz-monzodiorite occur as well. Four granitoid suites, biotite granitoids and deformed biotite granitoids with amphibole, megafeldspar granitoids with megacrysts and two-mica granitoids with primary muscovite and igneous garnet are distinguished. The granites can be assigned to high-K calc-alkalic to shoshonitic series. The partly shoshonitic biotite granitoids are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous and can be labelled as a highly fractionated I-type suite. The megafeldspar granitoids are weakly peraluminous with I-type character whereas the two-mica granitoids are weakly to strongly peraluminous and belong to an S-type suite. Emplacement ages at 558–564 Ma for the two-mica granitoids have been dated from monazite by the EMP Th–U–Pb method.The REE in the biotite granitoids are moderately fractionated with (La/Lu)_N = 23–38. Enrichment of Nb and Ta varies by one order of magnitude. The megafeldspar granitoids show homogeneous and strongly fractionated REE patterns with (La/Lu)_N = 27–42. The primitive mantle-normalized element patterns are homogeneous with marked negative Ba, Nb, Ta, Sr, Eu and Ti anomalies. The two-mica granitoids are characterized by low to moderate total REE contents with strongly fractionated REE expressed by (La/Lu)_N ranging from 7 to 59. The negative Nb and Ta anomalies are less significant. Nd and Sr whole-rock isotope data confirm different sources for the granitoid suites. The source of the I-type biotite granitoids was probably a juvenile mantle which has been variably metasomatized. The source of the I-type megafeldspar granitoids is characterized by juvenile mantle and lower crust components. Anatectic melts of the upper continental crust with variable contribution of lower continental crust or mantle melts can explain the heterogeneous isotopic signatures of the S-type two-mica granitoids. It is suggested that the melting of these sources was successively initiated by the rising isotherms during a syn- to post-collisional setting which followed a subduction.