峨眉山大火成岩省中的苦橄岩:地幔柱活动证据

峨眉山大陆溢流玄武岩省中新发现的苦橄质熔岩中的橄榄石和铬尖晶石分别以富镁和富铬为特征。利用橄榄石熔体平衡原理恢复得到原生岩浆的MgO含量约为22％．表明该地区既有代表原生岩浆成分的苦橄岩,也有代表演化和堆晶成因的苦橄岩,根据有关实验估算其形成的T=1600℃,p=4．5GPa。如此高的温度指示了苦橄岩的形成与地幔柱作用有关。其稀土和微量元素配分模式以轻稀土富集和高场强元素(HFSE)相对亏损．不存在Nb、Ta负异常,而以P和K负异常为特征。其La／Ta、La／Sm、(La／Nb)PM、(Th／Ta)PM值变化范围小,均指示其地幔柱成因,且上升过程中很少或没有受到岩石圈地幔或地壳物质的混染,是石榴二辉橄榄岩经大约7％的部分熔融的产物。地幔柱的轴部位置可能位于现今云南丽江县城一带。     

西南暗色岩铜镍硫化物矿化岩体与峨眉山玄武岩的关系--以云南金宝山岩体为例

内容提要本文以金宝山为典型实例,根据元素地球化学特征探讨了西南暗色岩铜镍硫化物矿化岩体与峨眉山玄武岩的关系。分析表明,金宝山超镁铁岩与低钛峨眉山玄武岩在元素地球化学特征上具有一致的岩浆成因属性,两者在成岩机制上互补,低钛峨眉山玄武岩普遍经历了橄榄石结晶分异和硫化物熔离亏损作用,金宝山成矿岩体则与低钛峨眉山玄武岩同源岩浆深部分异的堆晶相相对应,由堆晶橄榄石及熔离硫化物和部分残余熔体构成的“晶-糊”侵位形成,因此认为铜镍硫化物矿床成矿岩体与低钛峨眉山玄武岩为同源异相产物。     

Eruption of the Continental Flood Basalts at -259 Ma in the Emeishan Large Igneous Province, SW China： Evidence from Laser Microprobe ^40Ar/^39Ar Dating

A suite of continental flood basalts sampled over a vast exposure and stratigraphic thickness in the Emeishan large igneous province (LIP), SW China was investigated for laser microprobe 40Ar/39Ar dating. There are two 40Ar/39Ar age groups for these basalts, corresponding to 259-246 Ma and 177-137 Ma, respectively. A well-defined isochron gives an eruption age of huge quantities of mafic magmas at 258.9±3.4 Ma, which is identical to previous dating and paleontological data. Much younger 40Ar/39Ar ages for some basalts with low-greenschist metamorphic facies probably recorded a late thermo-tectonic event caused by collision between the Yangtze and Qiangtang continental blocks during the Mesozoic, which resulted in the reset of argon isotope system. The 40Ar/39Ar age data, we present here, combined with previous dating and paleontological data, suggest relatively short duration (about 3 Ma) of mafic volcanism, which have important implication on mantle plume genesis of the Emeishan continental flood basalts in the LIP.     

Geochemistry of Two Types of Basalts in the Emeishan Basaltic Province: Evidence for Mantle Plume-Lithosphere Interaction

Based on the temporal-spatial distribution and geochemical characteristics, the Emeishan basalts can be divided into two types: high-P2O-TiO2 basalt (HPT) and low-P2O5-TiO2 basalt (LPT), which differ distinctly in geochemistry: the LPTs are characterized by relatively high abundances of MgO, total FeO and P2O5 and compatible elements (Cr, Ni, Sc), and relatively low contents of moderately compatible elements (V, Y, Yb, Co), LREE and other incompatible elements compared with the HPT. On the diagrams of trace element ratios, they are plotted on an approximately linear mixing line between depleted and enriched mantle sources, suggesting that these two types of basalts resulted from interactions of varying degrees between mantle plume and lithospheric mantle containing such volatile-rich minerals as amphibole and apatite. The source region of the LPT involves a smaller proportion of lithospheric components, while that of the HTP has a larger proportion of lithospheric components. Trachyte is generated by pa     

Chemostratigraphy of Flood Basalts in the Garze-Litang Region and Zongza Block: Implications for Western Extension of the Emeishan Large Igneous Province, SW China

The Late Permian Emeishan Large Igneous Province (ELIP) is commonly regarded as being located in the western part of the Yangtze craton, SW China, with an asymmetrical shape and a small area. This area, however, is just a maximum estimation because some parts of the ELIP were not recognized or dismembered and destroyed during the Triassic to Cenozoic tectonism. In this paper, the chemostratigraphical data of the Zongza block, the Garze-Litang belt and the Songpan-Garze block suggest that the Late Permian basalts in these areas have remarkable similarities to the ELIP basalts in petrography and geochemistry. Flood basalts in the Sanjiangkou area are composed of the lower part of the low-Ti (LT) tholeiite and the upper part of the high-Ti (HT) tholeiite, which is the same as the flood basalts on the western margin of the Yangtze craton. Flood basalts in the Zongza and Songpan-Garze areas, which are far from the Yangtze craton, consist of HT tholeiite only. This is the same as the flood basalts within the Y     

峨眉山玄武岩研究中的一些问题的讨论

峨眉山玄武岩是当前研究的特点，本文从以下方面论述了峨眉山玄武岩研究中存在的一些问题：时空分布；岩石组合；高Ti和低Ti玄武岩；与其它典型大陆溢流玄武岩的异同点；与地幔柱的关系和地幔柱的起因。对这些问题提出了一些新的认识和解释，或者提出了解决这些问题的途径。这些问题的解决，对研究娥眉山玄武岩本身以及地幔柱－岩石圈的相互作用及其成矿效应均具有重要意义。     

峨眉山大火成岩省中苦橄岩与其共生岩石的地球化学特征及其对源区的约束

本文对在峨眉山玄武岩省中新发现的苦橄质岩石及其共生玄武岩的地球化学特征进行了研究,结果表明,除苦橄质岩石外,与其共生的玄武质岩石均属高Ti玄武岩。其主要元素特征与大多数大陆溢流玄武岩省相似,表现为高Fe_8、(CaO/Al_2O_3)_8和低Na_8,指示其形成压力高;其稀土和微量元素配分曲线相似,表现为轻稀土富集、高场强元素(HFSE)相对亏损,并且不存在Nb、Ta的负异常,而存在P和K的相对亏损。一些反映源区特征的比值,如La/Ta、La/Sm、(La/Nb)_(PM)、(Th/Ta)_(PM),Ta/Hf,Nb/Zr等,变化范围小,均指示了其地幔柱成因,且上升过程中很少或没有受到岩石圈地幔或地壳物质的混染,是石榴子石二辉橄榄岩在>75km时经大约7％的部分熔融的产物。而地幔柱的轴部位置可能位于现今云南丽江县城一带。     

祁连山元古宙大陆溢流玄武岩

祁连山西段大面积分布的元古宙浅海相火山岩系是大 陆裂 谷火山作用的产 物,属大陆溢流玄武岩系。岩石地球化学研究表明,它们具有高εNd值和低( 87Sr/86Sr)i值 ,系派生于岩石圈之下的地幔柱源,但也显示有岩石圈组分卷入的证据。它们的形成是地幔 柱岩石圈相互作用的结果,是北祁连山早古生代洋盆开启的前兆。     

The Early Permian Woniusi Flood Basalts from the Baoshan Terrane, SW China: Petrogenesis and Geodynamic Implications

The Woniusi flood basalts from the Baoshan terrane, SW China, represent a significant eruption of volcanic rocks which were linked to the Late Paleozoic rifting of the Cimmeria from the northern margin of East Gondwana. However, the precise mechanism for the formation and propagation of the rifting is still in debate. Here we report ⁴⁰ Ar/³⁹ Ar dating, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopes for the Woniusi basalts from the Baoshan terrane of SW China, with the aim o...     

Geochemistry of Picritic and Associated Basalt Flows of the Western Emeishan Flood Basalt Province, China

Picritic lava flows near Lijiang in the late Permian Emeishanflood basalt province are associated with augite-phyric basalt,aphyric basalt, and basaltic pyroclastic units. The dominantphenocryst in the picritic flows is Mg-rich olivine (up to 91·6%forsterite component) with high CaO contents (to 0·42wt %) and glass inclusions, indicating that the olivine crystallizedfrom a melt. Associated chromite has a high Cr-number (73–75).The estimated MgO content of the primitive picritic liquidsis about 22 wt %, and initial melt temperature may have beenas high as 1630–1690°C. The basaltic lavas appearto be related to the picritic ones principally by olivine andclinopyroxene fractionation. Age-corrected Nd–Sr–Pbisotope ratios of the picritic and basaltic lavas are indistinguishableand cover a relatively small range [e.g. _Nd(t) = –1·3to +4·0]. The higher _Nd(t) lavas are isotopically similarto those of several modern oceanic hotspots, and have ocean-island-likepatterns of alteration-resistant incompatible elements. Heavyrare earth element characteristics indicate an important rolefor garnet during melting and that the lavas were formed byfairly small degrees of partial melting. Rough correlationsof isotope ratios with ratios of alteration-resistant highlyincompatible elements (e.g. Nb/La) suggest modest amounts ofcontamination involving continental material or a relativelylow-_Nd component in the source. Overall, our results are consistentwith other evidence suggesting some type of plume-head originfor the Emeishan province. KEY WORDS: Emeishan; flood basalts; picrites; mantle plumes; late Permian     

峨眉山溢流玄武岩省高钛玄武岩的两种不同地幔源特征

为探讨和揭示峨眉山高钛玄武岩的幔源特征,以二滩高钛玄武岩为研究对象进行了主要元素、微量元素和Sr-Nd-Pb同位素的系统研究。研究表明:二滩高钛玄武岩可分为A和B两组玄武岩;两组岩石间的微量元素(Rb﹑K﹑Ba﹑Th﹑Nb和Ta)富集程度和微量元素比值(Ba/Nb﹑Ba/Th﹑Zr/Nb﹑Th/La、Zr/Hf)以及同位素比值(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr、²⁰⁸Pb^*/206Pb^*)均存在较为明显的差异。造成这种差异的原因不是岩浆过程(结晶分异、地壳混染、部分熔融)的不同,而是A组和B组具有不同的地幔源。A组具有EM II特征,可能为富含辉石岩的交代地幔部分熔融所形成;B组则具有EM I和C组分的混合特征,可能为交代谱系较宽的地幔物质熔融所形成。     

Emeishan large igneous province, SW China

In recent years, there have been major advances in our understanding of the Emeishan large igneous province (LIP) of SW China following publication of a number of LIP-focused investigations of the terrain and associated rocks. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge. The volcanic and upper-intrusive portion of the province is relatively small (0.3×10⁶ km³), even when offset fragments, eroded sections and buried portions are included in the volume calculation. The most reliable radiometric age dates (zircon U–Pb SHRIMP from an associated layered intrusive body several kilometers in area) indicate generation at 259 Ma, consistent with the end-Guadalupian (end Middle Permian) stratigraphic age. In addition, several Ar–Ar dating studies have been carried out, mainly on the volcanic rocks, with a number of reported dates 253–251 Ma (Late Permian), but a consensus is emerging that these ages are problematic because they are in conflict with the stratigraphic data (possibly due to a monitor standard miscalibration). The Ar–Ar investigations have also yielded a large number of secondary ages, which are clustered at 175, 142, 98 and 42 Ma, and these are inferred to record sub-regional tectonic events that affected the western Yangtze Block as East Asia was assembled and later deformed by India’s collision–indentation into Asia. Magnetostratigraphic data and field observations suggest that the bulk of the volcanic sequence formed within 1–2 my. The geochemistry of the volcanic rocks and bio-lithostratigraphic studies of the underlying Maokou Formation suggests a mantle plume generated the province. The basalts can be classified into low and high Ti groups with different parental magmas. The low Ti basalts are confined to the western part of the province and are overlain by the high Ti basalts. The low Ti magmas formed at shallow mantle depths in the spinel–garnet field transition zone (60–80 km), whereas the high Ti magmas formed by low degrees of partial melting within the deeper garnet stability field. This observation suggests a deepening of the melting column as the lithosphere thickened due to under-plating and a transition from peak basalt generation to the waning stage. Outstanding issues, which might focus future studies, are also outlined.     

Geochemical Constraints on the Mantle Source of the Upper Permian Emeishan Continental Flood Basalts,Southwestern China

The widespread Emeishan igneous province in southwestern China comprises the Emeishan continental flood basalts (ECFB) and associated mafie-ultramafic intrusions. The ECFB have variable SiO₂, ranging from 43.6 to 52.1 wt%, Al₂O₃ from 5.0 to 12.6 wt%, and total alkali (K₂O + Na₂O) from 0.7 to 6.5 wt%. These oxides exhibit negative correlations with MgO (5.4 - 23.1 wt%), implying fractional crystallization of olivine and clinopyroxene, which occur as phenocrysts in the rocks. Linear correlations between Zr, Nb, and La suggest that crustal contamination is not important. The primitive-mantle-normalized trace-element patterns show that the ECFB are enriched in high-field-strength trace elements, large-ion-lithophile elements, and light-rare-earth elements, similar to ocean-island basalt. Incompatible element ratios of the ECFB, such as Zr/Nb (7-10), Th/La (0.1-0.15), and Rb/Nb (0.9-1.7), differ from those of primitive mantle, N-MORB, and continental crust, but are similar to ocean-island basalts from an enriched mantle source (EM-1). However, the ECFB have isotopic ratios (¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd = 0.51229 -0.51276 and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70480-0.70647) that imply that the ECFB were derived from a homogeneous, primitive lower mantle carried upward by a mantle plume.

We propose that the original melts derived from the mantle plume were contaminated through interaction at shallower depth with an enriched lithospheric mantle. This model suggests that the lithospheric mantle beneath the ECFB was modified by subduction of an oceanic slab.     

二滩玄武岩的水含量：峨眉山大火成岩省地幔源区水含量的区域性分布特征

近期对科马提岩以及许多大火成岩省中的苦橄岩进行的水含量分析以及地幔潜能温度的研究表明,无论是太古宙还是显生宙的大火成岩省的形成都和含水的地幔柱有关。晚二叠纪的峨眉山大火成岩省（ELIP）位于扬子克拉通西缘,目前主流观点认为其是由地幔柱形成的。前人根据大量的岩石地球化学工作将ELIP分为西区、中区和东区;证明了位于西区的大理、宾川的苦橄岩和玄武岩地幔源区的水含量高于2500×10^-6。然而对于其他区域玄武岩源区的含水性还不清楚。文章以位于中区的二滩剖面底部高钛型玄武岩为研究对象,采用单斜辉石斑晶反演的方法研究恢复了其原始岩浆的水含量。结果表明,单斜辉石斑晶水含量范围为76×10^-6 ~424×10^-6, 对应的平衡熔体水含量为3.01 wt%。在考虑分离结晶影响后,恢复的原始岩浆水含量达到2.71±0.95 wt%。该水含量略低于大理苦橄岩水含量,与宾川苦橄岩相当。而计算的地幔源区水含量最低估计为1357×10^-6,该值低于大理、宾川苦橄岩的源区水含量,但仍显著高于正常洋中脊玄武岩和洋岛玄武岩源区。ELIP中不同区域的苦橄岩和玄武岩都存在高水含量,这表明在ELIP的形成和演化过程中水都扮演了很重要的角色。     

Petrology and Geochemistry of Intraplate Basalts in the South Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand: Evidence for Two Coeval Magma Suites from Distinct Sources

The South Auckland Volcanic Field is a Pleistocene (1·59–0·51Ma) basaltic intraplate, monogenetic field situated south ofAuckland City, North Island, New Zealand. Two groups of basaltsare distinguished based on mineralogy and geochemical compositions,but no temporal or spatial patterns exist in the distributionof various lava types forming each group within the field: GroupA basalts are silica-undersaturated transitional to quartz-tholeiiticbasalts with relatively low total alkalis (3·0–4·6wt %), Nb (7–29 ppm), and (La/Yb)_N (3·4–7·6);Group B basalts are strongly silica-undersaturated basanitesto nepheline-hawaiites with high total alkalis (3·3–7·9wt %), Nb (32–102 ppm), and (La/Yb)_N (12–47). GroupA has slightly higher ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, similar _Nd, and lower ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pbvalues compared with Group B. Contrasting geochemical trendsand incompatible element ratios (e.g. K/Nb, Zr/Nb, Ce/Pb) areconsistent with separate evolution of Groups A and B from dissimilarparental magmas derived from distinct sub-continental lithosphericmantle sources. Differentiation within each group was controlledby olivine and clinopyroxene fractionation. Group B magmas weregenerated by <8% melting of an ocean island basalt (OIB)-likegarnet peridotite source with high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb mantle (HIMU)and enriched mantle (EMII) characteristics possibly inheritedfrom recycled oceanic crust. Group A magmas were generated by<12% melting of a spinel peridotite source also with HIMUand EMII signatures. This source type may have resulted fromsubduction-related metasomatism of the sub-continental lithospheremodified by a HIMU plume. These events were associated withMesozoic or earlier subduction- and plume-related magmatismwhen New Zealand was at the eastern margin of the Gondwana supercontinent. KEY WORDS: continental intraplate basalts; geochemistry; HIMU, EMII; Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes; South Auckland; sub-continental lithospheric sources     

The Principles for Discrimination of the Source Composition of Mantle-Derived Igneous Rocks and the Nature of the Mantle Source Region of the Emeishan Basalts

This paper discusses the discrimination principles. deduction and methods for probing into the source composition of mantle-derived magma. The magmatophile (incompatible) source elements are not all optimal tracers for mantle source composition. The ratios of two strong magmatophile elements (D<1) or the ratios of two trace elements with the same D value are not controlled by the formation mode and evolution degree of a magma, but maintain the characteristics of their composition in mantle source region prior to the magma formation. The ratios are related to different mantle-crust structures and dynamics. The mantle source composition of the Emeishan Basalt series is similar to that of the South Atlantic Rio Grande Rise-Walvis Ridge Basalts and Brazil continental-margin basalts. This may indicate that these basalt series might have similar source regions and tectonic environments.     

峨眉地幔柱-岩石圈的相互作用:来自低钛和高钛玄武岩的Sr-Nd和O同位素证据

蛾眉山玄武岩总体具有较高的^87Sr／^86Sr比值和较低的εNd(t)值，并具有富集地幔源区的特点。而低钛玄武岩(LT)与高钛玄武岩(HT)间又表现出一定的差异性，即早期低钛玄武岩(LTl)的^87Sr/^86Sr比值最高(0．7063—0．7078)，而其εNd(t)最低(—6．74-—0．34)：晚期高钛玄武岩(HT)具有最低的^87Sr/^86Sr比值(0．7049—0．7064)和最高的εNd(t)值(—0．71—1．5)。蛾眉山低钛玄武岩中单斜辉石的氧同位素变化范围为6．2‰-7．86‰，高于洋岛拉斑玄武岩的平均值5．4‰。研究样品较地幔岩石偏高的δ^18O值说明在其形成和演化过程中有壳源物质的参与。结合前人的研究成果和对元素地球化学的研究认为，壳源物质可能主要来自于新元古代富集的扬子西缘次大陆岩石圈地幔。地幔柱—岩石圈的相互作用过程中表现在时间和空间的系统变化，即早期西岩区形成含大量壳源组分的低钛玄武岩，晚期为壳源组分相对较少的高钛玄武岩。空间上低钛玄武岩仅分布在西岩区，而中、东岩区皆为高钛玄武岩。壳源组分随着时间演化逐渐减少，在空间上由西而东也逐渐减少。表明蛾眉山火成岩省形成早(主)期地幔柱头卷入并熔融了较多交代富集的次大陆岩石圈物质，晚期则有较少的壳源物质参与。建立了蛾眉地幔柱与大陆岩石圈作用的工作模型。     

地壳再循环与大陆碱性玄武岩的成因：以山东新生代碱性玄武岩为例

      大陆碱性玄武岩在地球化学特征上与洋岛玄武岩高度相似,被看做是板内玄武岩在大陆上的典型代表。本文以山东 新生代碱性玄武岩为例,探讨大陆碱性玄武岩的成因。山东新生代碱性玄武岩按时空分布特征可以分为两类：早期定向分 布、相互平行的三个火山群（包括鲁西的潍坊火山群、沂水火山群和胶东的蓬莱火山群）和晚期杂乱分布的孤立小火山。 早期火山群碱性较弱,以碱性橄榄玄武岩和碧玄岩为主,微量元素特征和同位素组成变化大;晚期孤立小火山碱性强,以 碧玄岩和霞石岩为主,微量元素特征和同位素组成较均一。因此,从岩性组成和时空分布特征看,山东的火山群相当于洋 岛/海山的造盾期玄武岩,而孤立小火山接近于洋岛/海山上的复苏期玄武岩。潍坊火山群和沂水火山群在Sr-Nd,Nd-Hf同位 素相关图上都存在从亏损到富集的两端元混合排列趋势,但两者的排列趋势有一点区别。其中同位素富集的端元相对于原 始地幔具有偏低的Ce/Pb比和偏高的Ba/Th比,指示其为大陆下地壳物质。同时,这种富集端元的Th/La比值明显低于大陆下 地壳的平均值,其放射成因Hf相对于放射成因Nd过剩（即Nd-Hf同位素解耦）,说明这种富集端元不是岩浆上升过程中混染 的下地壳物质,而是经历过早期熔融的再循环大陆下地壳（榴辉岩或者石榴辉石岩）。鲁西两个平行火山群在同位素排列上 的区别类似于夏威夷玄武岩中的KEA链和LOA链,因此,山东的平行火山群的深部动力学背景可能是地幔柱,再循环大陆 下地壳物质可能是这种地幔柱的重要组成物质。晚期的孤立小火山在地球化学特征上与火成碳酸岩非常相似,如在原始地 幔标准化图上都具有K,Pb,Zr,Hf,Ti的负异常等特征,因此我们认为其地幔源区为碳酸盐化的橄榄岩。孤立小火山中等亏损 的Sr,Nd,Hf同位素特征支持碳酸岩熔体来自年轻的（中生代？）再循环洋壳。     

Geochemistry of the Limahe Intrusion in the Panxi District, SW China:Discussion on the Relationship to the Emeishan Basalts

The Limahe intrusion is a typical rock hosting Cu-Ni sulfide deposit in the Panxi district. The major element, trace element and Sr-Nd isotopic geochemical data are reported in this study both firstly and systemically. Age-corrected （87Sr/86Sr） and εNd（t） isotope values, ranging from 0.687062 to 0.709298, from -0.6 to -4.13 respectively, are partly overlap the field of the Emeishan basalt and OIB, and they lie between upper crust and OIB generally. The similar patterns between the Limahe intrusion and the picrites of the Emeishan large igneous province imply the genetic relationship to the Emeishan basalts. Their lower Nb/U （〈30）, higher （La/Nb）pM and （Th/Ta）pM ratio values （〉1） indicate contamination of the upper crust material. The correlation between MgO and major oxides reflects the fractional crystallization of olivine, clinopyroxene and minor plagioclase in the deep-seated chamber. Therefore increased SiO2 and lowered FeO by the upper crustal contamination may trigger immiscible sulfide melt, which then flowed along the structural fracture and intruded into gabbrodiorite, resulting in the formation of Cu-Ni sulfide orebody.     

Petrology and Geochemistry of Early Cretaceous Bimodal Continental Flood Volcanism of the NW Etendeka, Namibia. Part 1: Introduction, Mafic Lavas and Re-evaluation of Mantle Source Components

The bimodal NW Etendeka province is located at the continentalend of the Tristan plume trace in coastal Namibia. It comprisesa high-Ti (Khumib type) and three low-Ti basalt (Tafelberg,Kuidas and Esmeralda types) suites, with, at stratigraphicallyhigher level, interstratified high-Ti latites (three units)and quartz latites (five units), and one low-Ti quartz latite.Khumib basalts are enriched in high field strength elementsand light rare earth elements relative to low-Ti types and exhibittrace element affinities with Tristan da Cunha lavas. The unradiogenic²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of Khumib basalts are distinctive, most plottingto the left of the 132 Ma Geochron, together with elevated ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pbratios, and Sr–Nd isotopic compositions plotting in thelower ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd part of mantle array (EM1-like). The low-Tibasalts have less coherent trace element patterns and variable,radiogenic initial Sr (