Trace elements in streambed sediments of small subtropical streams on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i: Results from the USGS NAWQA program

Data are presented for trace element concentrations determined in the <63 μm fraction of streambed sediment samples collected at 24 sites on the island of O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. Sampling sites were classified as urban, agricultural, mixed (urban/agricultural), or forested based on their dominant land use, although the mixed land use at selected sampling sites consisted of either urban and agricultural or forested and agricultural land uses. Forest dominated sites were used as reference sites for calculating enrichment factors.Trace element concentrations were compared to concentrations from studies conducted in the conterminous United States using identical methods and to aquatic-life guidelines provided by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. A variety of elements including Pb, Cr, Cu and Zn exceeded the aquatic-life guidelines in selected samples. All of the Cr and Zn values and 16 of 24 Cu values exceeded their respective guidelines. The potential toxicity of elements exceeding guidelines, however, should be considered in the context of strong enrichments of selected trace elements attributable to source rocks in Hawai‘i, as well as in the context of the abundance of fine-grained sediment in the streambed of O‘ahu streams.Statistical methods including cluster analysis, Kruskal–Wallis non-parametric test, correlation analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to evaluate differences and elucidate relationships between trace elements and sites. Overall, trace element distributions and abundances can be correlated to three principal sources of elements. These include basaltic rocks of the volcanic edifice (Fe, Al, Ni, Co, Cr, V and Cu), carbonate/seawater derived elements (Mg, Ca, Na and Sr), and elements enriched owing to anthropogenic activity (P, Sn, Cd, Sn, Ba and Pb). Anthropogenic enrichment gradients were observed for Ba, Cd, Pb, Sn and Zn in the four streams in which sediments were collected upstream and downstream.The findings of this study are generally similar to but differ slightly from previous work on sediments and suspended particulate matter in streams, from two urban watersheds of O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. Inter-element associations in the latter were often stronger and indicated a mixture of anthropogenic, agricultural and basaltic sources of trace elements. Some elements fell into different statistical categories in the two studies, owing in part to differences in study design and the hydrogeological constraints on the respective study areas.     

Kīlauea,Hawai’i,puts on a ‘once‐in‐a‐century’ show

Kīlauea is the youngest of five basaltic shield volcanoes on the island of Hawai’i. It is located to the south‐east of the much larger Mauna Loa volcano, and rose above sea level about 100 ka ago. Kīlauea is one of the most monitored, and arguably the best understood volcanoes on Earth, providing scientists with a good understanding of its current eruption, in which magma rises from depth and is stored beneath its 4 × 3.2 km summit caldera in an underground reservoir. The reservoir is connected to a lava lake within a crater called Halema’uma’u, which is situated on the floor of the caldera. When magma drains from the summit area it travels in underground conduits and emerges on the flanks of the volcano at a rift zone, where it erupts through fissures. The magma is sometimes stored in other reservoirs along the way. This link between summit magma storage and fissure eruptions on the flanks has occurred thousands of times at many Hawai’ian volcanoes. The current eruptive episode is, however, a ‘once‐in‐a‐century’ show, because it is the first time since 1924 that fissure‐fed lava flow eruptions have been accompanied by significant explosive eruptions within Halema’uma’u Crater. This gives scientists a unique opportunity to use modern methods to understand exactly how such hazardous explosions happen at Kīlauea, a volcano that receives about 2 million visitors a year.     

Geoarchaeological dating of petroglyphs at lake Onega,Russia

This article introduces a new quantitative method of dating petroglyphs and describes its initial application. First, the major recent developments in the field of rock art dating are briefly reviewed, and the continuing difficulties in the dating of petroglyphs are elucidated. The archaeological background of the Lake Onega art, its geological setting and archaeogeophysical dating are explained. The theory of microerosion dating is described, together with its first practical application at the site Besov Nos on the shore of Lake Onega. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the new method's advantages and disadvantages. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Geoarchaeological investigations at the upper Paleolithic site of Kamihoronai‐Moi,Hokkaido, Japan

In order to better understand modern human behavioral variability in Hokkaido, Japan, we consider the geoarchaeology of the Kamihoronai‐Moi site in terms of its geochronology, stratigraphy, depositional environments, and post‐depositional disturbances. A Paleolithic component is stratigraphically situated between the Eniwa‐a (15,000–17,000 ¹⁴C yr B.P.) and the Tarumae‐d (8000–9000 ¹⁴C yr B.P.) tephras. Moreover, six AMS ¹⁴C ages on charcoal from a Pleistocene‐aged hearth feature are between 14,400 and 14,800 ¹⁴C yr B.P. Quantitative examinations of patterns in artifact distributions show a low degree of vertical and horizontal displacement of chipped‐stone artifacts, suggesting that post‐depositional movement of the cultural material was insufficient to disrupt the original pattern of artifact distribution. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Geoarchaeological analysis of an acheulean site at Kalambo Falls,Zambia

Acheulean sites are commonly recovered from sandy channel contexts, particularly in Africa. These sites frequently contain impressive concentrations of artifacts dominated by typical Acheulean large bifacial artifacts (‘handaxes,’ etc.). Possible influences of fluvial sedimentary processes in Acheulean site formation are explored through consideration of sedimentary context and detailed analysis of relevant artifact assemblage characteristics in part of a major Acheulean ‘Floor’ at Kalambo Falls, Zambia. The Kalambo Falls patterns are analyzed here with regard to influences of behavioral and natural processes in their formation, and are compared to those observed in Acheulean horizons at Montagu Cave, South Africa. Spatial concentration of bifaces and paucity of debitage at many Acheulean sites may be due largely to fluvial disturbance and winnowing, although a hominid preoccupation with large bifacial tools may be a bona fide behavior pattern at some sites. Better control over sedimentary context is necessary to elucidate the range of behaviorally-produced patterns at Acheulean sites.     

Geoarchaeological investigations of the “potters' quarter” at Sagalassos,southwest Turkey

The potters' quarter of the ancient city of Sagalassos, southwest Turkey, was one of the largest and most enduring ceramic‐producing manufactories in the eastern Mediterranean. The objective of our study was to determine environmental circumstances that favored development of different clay resources in the territory of Sagalassos and to assess utilization of these resources in the local pottery manufactory. The potters' quarter was established where, owing to favorable geological circumstances, a large clay body had developed. The bedrock in the potters' quarter, a tectonized ophiolite sequence, has synclinal structure; hence, surface runoff and groundwater tend to accumulate in its center. The weathering of the basic rock formed a smectite‐rich clay with vertic properties. This clay was mined in antiquity, and mineralogical and chemical analyses indicate that it was used for the production of local ceramics from Hellenistic to Byzantine times. It is likely that colluvium on top of the ophiolitic clay at the potters' quarter is related to deforestation and slope processes after the potters' quarter was abandoned. In sum, environmental circumstances determined the location of the artisanal quarter of Sagalassos, with its clay quarrying operation and ceramic manufactory. However, for the local mass‐produced Sagalassos red slip ware, the results of our chemical and mineralogical analyses indicate that a different, more suitable clay was used: detrital lake sediments, rich in chlorite and chlorite/smectite mixed layers, located about 8 km from the original artisanal quarter. The choice for this clay was determined both by the presence of a suitable clay deposit, as well as socio‐economic circumstances such as land ownership. The site of Sagalassos yielded unique evidence of mining of clay at a ceramic production site, as well as import of nearby clays. The local and imported clays were used side‐by‐side, but one for the production of common wares and building ceramics, and the other for the manufacturing of luxury fine tablewares. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

西藏那木如辉绿岩岩脉的年代学和地球化学特征

那木如辉绿岩具有较高的TiO2和P2O5含量,Mg#是0.6～0.7,表明岩石经中等程度或轻微的斜长石分离结晶作用;富集Rb、K、Th、Ba,亏损Nb、Ti、Ta和Zr、Hf,轻稀土富集,且具有负Eu的异常,表明岩石具有岛弧岩浆的性质.对那木如辉绿岩进行SHRIMP锆石U-Pb定年,其形成年龄值为64±1 Ma(2σ,MSWD=2.4),即辉绿岩结晶年龄.本次定年的结果正好处于西雅鲁藏布北亚带洋盆向北对拉萨地体南缘之下的俯冲(晚白垩世至早第三纪)时期内,说明那木如辉绿岩为此次俯冲形成的岛弧岩浆岩.位于冈底斯弧南侧的西雅鲁藏布北亚带蛇绿岩被第三系磨拉石不整合覆盖,说明蛇绿岩侵位时间早于第三系,与那木如辉绿岩的侵位年龄接近.由此可见,正是形成那木如岛弧岩浆岩的俯冲构造事件导致了西雅鲁藏布北亚带蛇绿岩的构造侵位.     

Chronology,stratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental interpretation of a Late Pleistocene to mid‐Holocene cave accumulation on Kangaroo Island,South Australia

Chronological, sedimentological and geochemical analyses of a clastic infill from Kelly Hill Cave (5K1), Kangaroo Island, document a palaeoenvironmental record that spans from the Late Pleistocene to the middle Holocene. We AMS radiocarbon‐dated bone collagen and U–Th‐dated speleothem to determine that fossiliferous sediments were deposited between >20 ka and 7 ka ago. Most of the 15 sedimentary layers are dominated by sand‐ and silt‐sized quartz that is physically and geochemically comparable with surface soils in the Kelly Hill area. Late Pleistocene and Last Glacial Maximum strata are represented primarily by homogeneous, poorly sorted quartz‐rich sediments that contain little organic matter, but include a thin layer composed largely of silt‐sized clay pellets that resemble sediments deflated from playa lakes. Microstructures observed in petrographic slides indicate that, with the exception of one layer, all sediments experienced little reworking once deposited in the cave. Some layers display pedogenic microstructures such as redeposited clays and opaline silica infilling that indicate postdepositional modification; that is, cave‐floor soil development. Overlying Holocene‐aged sediments also consist mainly of quartz but have much greater organic matter content. Some of these sediments have been strongly influenced by re‐precipitated organic matter that appears to have been transported into the cave via vadose drip water. The presence of dissolved organic matter in soil/vadose waters suggests a high vegetation density and acidic soils, which are congruent with the more equitable climatic conditions characteristic of the Holocene. The sediments described here provide a valuable palaeoenvironmental record that will facilitate future interpretation of associated vertebrate fossils.     

Geoarchaeological context of late Pleistocene and early Holocene occupation at the Cooper's Ferry site,western Idaho,USA

Archaeological excavations at the Cooper's Ferry site (10IH73), located in the lower Salmon River canyon of western Idaho, revealed a stratified sequence of cultural occupations that included a pit feature containing stemmed points. However, radiocarbon ages determined on charcoal and bone in the pit feature range between ca. 12,000 yr B.P. and 7300 yr B.P. By considering the effects of postdepositional processes on dated samples, and by comparing the lithostratigraphy, pedostratigraphy, and stable isotope geochemistry of pedogenic carbonates from Cooper's Ferry with other well‐dated stratigraphic sections in the canyon, site geochronology is clarified. Based on the presence of key radiocarbon ages and distinctive stratigraphic criteria, we argue that the initial occupation and interment of lithic artifacts in a pit feature at Cooper's Ferry occurred during the late Pleistocene, between ca. 11,410 and 11,370 yr B.P., and not during the early Holocene. Records of geomorphic change and paleoenvironmental proxy data from the site reveal that early occupation in the lower Salmon River canyon corresponds with evolving riparian ecosystems, which must be considered as a contextual aspect of local prehistoric cultural ecology. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Geoarchaeological and Bioarchaeological Studies at Mira,an Early Upper Paleolithic Site in the Lower Dnepr Valley,Ukraine

New geoarchaeological and bioarcheological research was undertaken at the open‐air site of Mira, which is buried in deposits of the Second Terrace of the Dnepr River, roughly 15 km downstream from the city of Zaporozhye in Ukraine. Previous excavation of the site revealed two occupation layers dating to ∼32,000 cal BP. The lower layer (II/2) yielded bladelets similar to those of the early Gravettian, while the upper layer (I) contained traces of an artificial shelter and hundreds of bones and teeth of horse (Equus latipes). Mira represents the only firmly dated early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) site in the Dnepr Basin, and occupies a unique topographic setting for the EUP near the center of the broad floodplain of the Dnepr River. The site was visited during a period of floodplain stability, characterized by overbank deposition and weak soil formation under cool climate conditions. Mira was used as a long‐term camp, but also was the locus of large‐mammal carcass processing associated with a nearby kill of a group of horses (Layer I).     

A Geoarchaeological Study of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene Levels at Canteen Kopje,Northern Cape Province,South Africa

Canteen Kopje, situated in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, has two main archaeological deposits: alluvial gravels and a mantle of overlying fine sediments known locally as the “Hutton Sands.” This paper focuses on the fine sediments, the three industries contained within them, and the interface with the underlying gravels in an attempt to clarify their formation and transformation. A Fauresmith assemblage is found at this interface; it is thus crucial to understand the processes of deposition and modification at this poorly understood boundary. The methods used in this study involved the analysis of artifact depositional (dip and orientation) and spatial data, artifact condition, raw materials, and assemblage size profiles. Data presented document the mixing between the lowest levels of the fine sediments and the underlying alluvial gravels. This study thus provides important contextual information for the Fauresmith industry at Canteen Kopje.     

Geophysical and Geoarchaeological Investigations at Aganoa Beach,American Samoa: An Early Archaeological Site in Western Polynesia

Archaeological investigations at Aganoa, a coastal site in American Samoa, western Polynesia, revealed a marine resources exploitation base for the early inhabitants of the island. A series of 19 radiocarbon age determinations indicates the principal period of site utilization began no later than 570 B.C., and probably earlier, and lasted for about 300 years. This site is squarely in the phase identified by previous scholars as “ancestral Polynesian.” Geophysical survey in the form of long, shore‐perpendicular transects showed the accretionary history of this beach and ridge area. Surprisingly, it revealed that the earlier ridges were directly below the modern ridge (i.e., progradation of this geomorphic feature had not occurred). The survey revealed a buried paleosol with little or no disturbance, which yielded a well‐preserved assemblage of plain and decorated ceramics, stone artifacts, fishhooks, and archaeofauna. No evidence of archaeological continuity was seen between the end of the terminal Lapita occupation and the later reoccupation of the site after about A.D. 700. This study demonstrates the utility and feasibility of using ground‐penetrating radar for the discovery of deeply buried coastal sites.     

The Cretaceous–Palaeogene boundary at Gorgonilla Island,Colombia, South America

The discovery of a new Cretaceous/Palaeogene (K/Pg) bathyal marine sequence on Gorgonilla Island, SW Colombia, extends the presence of Chicxulub impact spherule deposits to the Pacific region of northern South America and to the Eastern Pacific Ocean. The Gorgonilla spherule layer is approximately 20 mm thick and consists of extraordinarily well‐preserved glass spherules up to 1.1 mm in diameter. About 70–90% of the spherules are vitrified, and their chemical composition is consistent with Haiti (Beloc) impact glass spherules. Normal size‐grading, delicate spherule textures, welded melt components and an absence of bioturbation or traction transport suggest that the Gorgonilla spherule layer represents an almost undisturbed settling deposit.     

Geoarchaeological and chronostratigraphical investigations of open‐air sites in the Geelbek Dunes,South Africa

The Geelbek Dunes located north of Cape Town, South Africa, are an active, northward migrating dune field. Interdunal deflation hollows temporarily expose former land surfaces that are associated with archaeological sites. These open‐air sites shed light on large‐scale patterns of Middle and Later Stone Age settlement and augment the information gained from well‐stratified, but spatially limited caves, rock shelters, and coastal shell middens. Based on paleopedological and sedimentological parameters, three former land surfaces were identified and associated with different assemblages. A chronostratigraphy of the various land surfaces was established by applying optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. The youngest former land surface is represented by a dune generation (AD2) which stabilized at a maximum of 5 ka. An older dune generation (AD1) shows a more heterogeneous age pattern where deposition started at ca. 27 ka with a maximum estimated age of stabilization at ca. 10 ka. Both of these dune generations overlie a weathered calcrete complex of Middle to Late Pleistocene age. While the third dune generation (AD0) was observed between underlying calcrete layers, samples taken from this unit could not be dated. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The birth of El Niño: Geoarchaeological evidence and implications

The oceanographic phenomenon known as El Niño is the subject of intensive recent study. Any hypotheses regarding physical causes and predictability of El Niño should consider its geological history. New geoarchaeological evidence suggests that the El Niño phenomenon did not exist along the northern and central coasts of Peru before about 5000 years B.P. Molluscan faunas from archaeological sites at Pampa las Salinas and Salinas de Chao permit temporal bracketing of a major structural change in the East Pacific water mass. The boundary between the warm Panamic Province and the cold Peruvian Province, which today occurs at about 5 degrees south latitude, was some 500 km further south from at least 11,000 years B.P. to about 5000 years B.P. This conclusion is corroborated by many other lines of evidence including phosphorite distribution, timing of glacial retreat, sea level change, radiolarian, diatom and fish scale distributions, and beach ridge patterns. The present day arid coastal climate of north central Peru is probably a post-5000 year B.P. development. Hunter–gatherer populations of the area would most likely have exploited more land-based seasonal resources from grasslands and forests before 5000 years B.P., and relied less upon the diminished productivity of warm water maritime resources.     

Chronology and organic chemistry of the Black Creek Swamp Megafauna site (Late Pleistocene), Kangaroo Island, Australia

The timing of the extinction of the Australian Megafauna and whether it was simultaneous and widespread has been a much researched topic in Quaternary geoscience. The Black Creek Swamp Megafauna site on Kangaroo Island was thought to be a refugium for Megafauna; however, recent and multidiscipline age determinations have established that the fossils are considerably older than the well-quoted extinction age of 45 kyr. Further radiocarbon age determinations, δ¹³C isotope analysis and ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy of the fossil containing organic matter demonstrates that it is highly soluble and accumulated as recently as 31–18 cal. kyr BP. These radiocarbon ages are much younger than the 100–50 kyr age bracket ascertained for the fossil material itself, implying separate episodes of death, deposition and burial. The soluble nature of the organic matter and increasing radiocarbon ages with depth suggests lateral accumulation, probably transported by subsurface waters from elevated areas proximal to the low-lying swamp. Such depositional conditions and ¹⁴C age range implies that the site may have experienced an unusually wet Last Glacial Maximum, due maybe to its proximity to the continental shelf and thus to maritime conditions. C3 vegetation dominates the Black Creek Swamp and its organic matter (δ¹³C; −30‰ and −23‰); however, variations in δ¹³C may indicate climatic shifts. ¹³C-enrichment and an abundance of salt-tolerant gastropods within the site's final phase of sediment accumulation (<6 cal. kyr BP) suggest that conditions during this most recent period were not as wet as those of the Last Glacial Maximum.     

Holocene vegetation dynamics and inferred climate changes at Svanåvatnet, Mo i Rana, northern Norway

Pollen and plant macrofossil analyses from Svanåvatnet in northern Norway provide records of past vegetation and climate in this region from c . 8700 cal. yr BP until the present. Pollen accumulation rates and the presence of plant macrofossils indicate that Betula pubescens (birch) was present from c . 8600 cal. yr BP and Pinus sylvestris (pine) from c . 8200 cal. yr BP. Quantitative climate is reconstructed using modern pollen-climate transfer functions based on weighted-averaging partial least squares regression. A rapid increase in mean July temperature (T_jul) and mean annual precipitation (P_ann) is inferred for the early Holocene. At times when tree abundance is at its highest and most diverse, inferred T_jul indicates maximum temperatures during the mid-Holocene of about 2°C warmer than at present. During the same time period, inferred P_ann is 200–300 mm above present-day conditions until c . 3000 cal. yr BP. Mean January temperatures (T_jan) are reconstructed to be about 2°C warmer than today from 8000 to 3500 cal. yr BP. After 3500 cal. yr BP until today, a gradual decrease is seen in all the reconstructed climate parameters, together with a reduction in tree abundance and the development of a mosaic of open vegetation with grasses, dwarf shrubs and wet areas, and of woodland containing B. pubescens , P. sylvestris and Picea abies (spruce).     

Fabric at granodiorite-schist contact,Bear Island,Maryland

Summary The essential difference between the granodiorite and its wall rock fabric consists in the two well-defined deformation plans. The wall rock is a B-tectonite, the granodiorite an S-tectonite. Transport in the former was rotational and monoclinic, in the latter possibly by laminar flow parallel with the contact.The granite fabric could hardly be an in place fabric or replacement without differential movement. It would have retained the wall rock fabric, even if not the mineral composition. Transport in the granodiorite was presumably along the wall parallel S₄ and the contact. The present study is barely a beginning, but it is hoped that it can be continued in the near future and extended over a wider area.With 9 figures.     

Continual fire-making by Hominins at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel

This paper presents the culmination of an extensive study of fire-use at the Early and early Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov. Using software available in the GIS package, we have examined the spatial distribution of burned and unburned flint microartifacts from eight Acheulian archaeological horizons. The results of this study demonstrate that the burned microartifacts are never evenly distributed and dense concentrations are observed. The circumstances that introduced these burned flint artifacts to the archaeological layers are examined, suggesting that anthropogenic rather than natural fires are responsible for the observed patterns. As the evidence for the use of fire is recorded throughout the long stratigraphic sequence, it seems that fire was continually used by the Acheulian hominins of the site. This repetitive use of fire indicates that the hominins of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov had a profound knowledge of fire-making, enabling them to make fire at will.