Alteration of seismic wave properties and fluid permeability in sandstones due to microfracturing

Rock microfracturing significantly affects elastic and anelastic parameters as well as transport properties. Several rock models are proposed in literature relating rock microfractures and cracks to the effective velocities. However, the mechanisms involved in the attenuation of seismic waves still need further investigation in order to properly relate attenuation to fracturing. Laboratory measurements of ultrasonic wave propagation are performed on dry sandstones during increasing fracturing of the samples. Perpendicular to the loading axis the wave velocities decrease and attenuation increase. The observed decrease of wave velocity is a measure for the crack density of the newly formed cracks. Utilising crack densities and microstructural parameters the attenuation behaviour is interpreted in terms of the mechanisms friction and scattering. On the same rock samples the effect of fracturing on water transport is investigated. Measurements before and after the mechanical fracturing show a decrease of permeability in loading direction. The changes in seismic parameters and permeability are interpreted by different variations in rock microstructure. This should be considered when relating seismic and transport rock properties.     

Elastic wave velocities and permeability of cracked rocks

Cracks play a major role in most rocks submitted to crustal conditions. Mechanically, cracks make the rock much more compliant. They also make it much easier for fluid to flow through any rock body. Relying on Fracture Mechanics and Statistical Physics, we introduce a few key concepts, which allow to understand and quantify how cracks do modify both the elastic and transport properties of rocks. The main different schemes, which can be used to derive the elastic effective moduli of a rock, are presented. It is shown from experimental results that an excellent approximation is the so-called non-interactive scheme. The main consequences of the existence of cracks on the elastic waves is the development of elastic anisotropy (due to the anisotropic distribution of crack orientations) and the dispersion effect (due to microscopic local fluid flow). At a larger scale, macroscopic fluid flow takes place through the crack network above the percolation threshold. Two macroscopic fluid flow regimes can be distinguished: the percolative regime close to the percolation threshold and the connected regime well above it. Experimental data on very different rock types show both of these behaviors.     

Prediction of dilation and permeability changes in rock salt

A numerical procedure has been developed for predicting dilation (porosity) and gas permeability changes in rock salt. The hierarchical single-surface constitutive model of Desai and co-workers is used a finite element program to calculate the state of stress and strain surrounding excavations in rock salt. The elastoplastic constitutive model accounts for strain hardening, a non-associative volumetric response and stress-path-dependent behaviour. The calculated stress and strain fields are used in a flow model based on the equivalent channel concept to predict permeability. Parameters for both the mechanical and permeability models are developed from laboratory test results. Two field experiments adjacent to underground excavations are modelled. The extent of the dilated rock zone around the excavation is predicted well, but the magnitude of the porosity and gas permeability is underpredicted very near the excavations. This discrepancy is attributed to model parameters derived from loading-only laboratory tests, whereas significant unloading occurs in the field. The shape of the yield surface was found to be an important factor in dilation and permeability predictions. Similar stress, strain and permeability fields were obtained with different model types (plane strain or axisymmetric) and initial stress states, and with instantaneous and progressive excavation.     

岩石变形破坏过程中渗透率演化规律的试验研究

利用伺服试验机对灰岩和砂岩进行了应力应变全过程渗透性试验,研究了岩样变形和破坏过程中的轴向应变与渗透率之间的关系,分析了岩样环向应变对渗透率的影响规律,探讨了岩样变形破坏前后渗透压差随时间的变化关系。结果表明,岩样渗透率与应力状态密切相关,渗透率的峰值滞后或超前于应力应变峰值,这与岩石介质本身的特性有关;渗透率-环向应变曲线与渗透率-轴向应变曲线有相同的变化趋势,但岩石环向变形比轴向变形更能灵敏地反映渗透率的演化规律;岩样变形破坏峰值前后的渗透压差与时间均遵循负指数关系。最后对岩石变形破坏过程中的渗透机理作了讨论。     

断层影响下隧道围岩变形监测与特征分析

断层等软弱结构面是隧道工程中经常遇到而又必须有效处理的不良地质体.诸多工程实践和有关研究均表明,隧道围岩的变形与破坏一般受断层等软弱结构面控制;而断层对于隧道围岩变形与破坏的影响程度及其机理仍是一个模糊问题.因此,对于断层影响下隧道围岩变形与破坏的研究具有重要的理论意义和实用价值.黄河大柳树水利枢纽地处青藏褶皱系与阿拉善地块过渡带,区域断层发育,工程中的隧道大多为受断层影响的隧道.本文以黄河大柳树水利枢纽1号导流隧洞为例,对不同地段(根据断层的发育状况)在开挖过程中围岩变形的现场监测,试图对断层影响下隧道围岩变形特征与机理进行定量地深入分析.此外,为更准确监测隧道围岩变形,作者根据对该隧道变形特点的初步分析自行设计了监测仪器,即分点锚固式多点伸长计.这也是隧道工程监测技术的积极探索.     

The relationship between the deformation mechanism and permeability on brittle rock

In order to study the relationship between the deformation mechanism and permeability on brittle rock, the curves of stress–strain and permeability–strain of brittle rock were analyzed, the results indicated that the permeability of brittle rock increased rapidly at the critical failure point due to the microstructure changed seriously during the compaction, elastic deformation, and progressive failure process. When the rock bridges or asperities on the internal structural plane were ruptured partly or completely after the peak stress, a sudden decrease in rock strength occurred and the peak permeability could be the maximum. The strain at the critical point and turning point on the stress–strain curve corresponded to that at the rapid increase point and the peak point on the permeability–strain curve according to the renormalization theory and curves of stress–strain and permeability–strain. In addition, the ratios could be described by mathematical expressions. The conclusions could be proved reasonably by the experimental studies and examples of statistical analysis.     

循环加、卸载下盐岩变形特性试验研究

在MTS815 Flex test GT岩石力学试验机上对盐岩进行了单轴循环加、卸载试验研究盐岩的变形特性,试验表明,循环加、卸载强化了变形的线性特征,各级卸载、再加载曲线主要是由直线段组成。随着荷载级别的增高,直线段的变形模量总体上呈现微弱上升的趋势,各级卸载、再加载曲线变形模量的变异系数分别为8.05%和7.45%,可以用各级加、卸载曲线直线段变形模量的平均值来分别表征加、卸载的变形特征。每级卸载曲线的变形模量都要大于再加载曲线的变形模量,卸载的泊松比都要小于再加载的泊松比。与单轴试验相比,卸载和再加载的变形模量都要大于单轴应力应变全过程试验。根据以上分析,得出了简单应力状态下加、卸载本构关系。对各级塑性滞回能进行了计算,发现塑性滞回能随着级别的增高而增高,并对其进行了拟合。分析表明,卸载、再加载变形参数比单轴应力应变全过程试验参数更具有规律性,更能表征盐岩地下工程中的变形特性。     

岩体波速与坝基岩体变形模量关系

岩体变形模量是岩体工程设计最重要的参数之一,尽管其可以通过各种现场试验来获得,但因其耗时、费力、投资大,使得许多中小型工程及大型工程的初步设计阶段无法通过试验来得到这一参数。因此,许多研究者建立了诸多岩体变形模量与岩体物理力学参数或岩体质量分级之间的相关关系,如岩体变形模量与RQD、RMR分级、Q分级、岩体纵波速度等之间的关系,从而利用这些关系估算岩体变形模量。总结了已有估算岩体变形模量的各种方法,讨论了其应用条件及预测结果,重点分析了利用岩体纵波速度估算岩体变形模量的方法及存在的问题,并以玛尔挡坝址为实例,建立了相关预测公式。通过与已有估算方法的对比研究,阐明了各种方法预测结果的异同,表明其建立的估算公式与Barton等公式具有较好的一致性,可以用来估算岩体的变形模量     

层状盐岩储库长期运行腔体围岩流变破坏及渗透现象研究

通过热力耦合作用下层状盐岩流变实验研究可知,层状盐岩内部各层之间由于蠕变率不同变形不协调,导致层状盐岩体内多重剪切破坏,层间流变破坏后呈网格状,孔隙、裂隙增多,渗透率比未扰动时提高5个数量级,储库长期运行腔体围岩流变破坏后天然气必然发生泄漏。同时,层状盐岩流变破坏后气体渗透实验表明,其渗透率与有效体积应力关系为 。基于裂隙介质,建立了层状盐岩储库长期运行腔体围岩流变破坏后渗透特性数学模型,并对金坛天然气储库长期运行腔体围岩渗透特性进行了数值模拟,结果表明:由流变破坏造成的盐岩与夹层交接面处产生的裂隙是气体渗透的主通道,具有较强的导气能力,夹层内部气体渗透滞后于层间裂隙气压,渗透速度随时间的延长逐渐减小,最后达到稳定状态。所以,高盐分泥岩夹层对天然气储库长期运行腔体围岩的渗透特性具有很大影响,确定合理的运行压力是保证天然气储库不发生渗漏的必要条件,为我国盐岩溶腔储库长期运行腔体围岩天然气渗漏现象研究提供一些参考依据。     

S- and O-isotopic character of dissolved sulphate in the cover rock aquifers of a Zechstein salt dome

Sulfur and O isotope analyses of dissolved SO₄ were used to constrain a hydrogeological model for the area overlying the Gorleben–Rambow Salt Structure, Northern Germany. Samples were collected from 80 wells screened at different depth-intervals. The study area consists of a set of two vertically stacked aquifer systems. Generally, the isotope data show a good spatial correlation, outlining well-defined groundwater zones containing SO₄ of characteristic isotopic composition. Highly saline waters from deeper parts of the lower aquifer system are characterized by rather constant SO₄ isotopic compositions, which are typical of Permian Zechstein evaporites (δ³⁴S=9.6–11.9‰; δ¹⁸O=9.5–12.1‰). Above this is a transition zone containing ground waters of intermediate salinity and slightly higher isotopic values (average δ³⁴S=16.6‰; δ¹⁸O=15.3‰). The confined groundwater horizon on the top of the lower aquifer system below the low permeable Hamburg Clays is low in total dissolved solids and is characterized by an extreme ³⁴S enrichment (average δ³⁴S=39.1‰; δ¹⁸O=18.4‰), suggesting that bacterially mediated SO₄ reduction is a dominant geochemical process in this zone. Two areas of distinct isotopic composition can be identified in the shallow ground water horizons of the upper hydrogeological system. Sulfate in groundwaters adjacent to the river Elbe and Löcknitz has a typical meteoric isotopic signature (δ³⁴S=5.2‰; δ¹⁸O=8.2‰), whereas the central part of the area is characterized by more elevated isotopic ratios (δ³⁴S=12.7‰; δ¹⁸O=15.6‰). The two major SO₄ pools in the area are represented by Permian seawater SO₄ and a SO₄ of meteoric origin that has been mixed with SO₄ resulting from the oxidation of pyrite. It is suggested that the S-isotope compositions observed reflect the nature of the SO₄ source that have been modified to various extent by bacterial SO₄ reduction. Groundwaters with transitional salinity have resulted from mixing between brines and low-mineralized waters affected by bacterial SO₄ reduction.     

含倾斜夹层盐岩体变形与破损特征分析

为了研究含倾斜非盐夹层盐岩体的变形与破损特性,开展了含倾斜夹层盐岩试样的单轴、三轴压缩试验,并结合复合岩体破坏的理论分析,探讨了界面黏结应力的变化规律及其影响因素,揭示了倾斜层状盐岩体变形与破坏特征及其机制。研究表明,倾斜夹层对盐岩体的变形与破损具有显著影响。夹层各部破损形式与其所处位置有关;裂纹在界面处最先萌生、进而扩展到夹层和盐岩层;试验观察到盐斑的穿晶断裂现象并揭示了其力学机制;夹层厚度影响着盐岩体整体性能和破损特性,相对于薄夹层、中厚夹层更容易形成宏观裂纹;围压作用减少了夹层不同部位的破裂形态差异及界面黏结应力差异。该结果为含地层倾角盐岩矿区储气库的造腔优化及其稳定性、密闭性分析提供了理论参考,建议造腔前应优选地质层段,以同时满足稳定性和密闭性要求。     

层状盐岩力学和变形特性数值试验研究

对含泥岩夹层层状盐岩力学和变形特性进行有限元分析。首先,用数值试验方法预测含泥岩夹层层状盐岩体宏观等效弹性力学参数,然后,建立层状盐岩复合体细观有限元模型,研究其在单轴和三轴压缩荷载下盐岩、泥岩以及界面细观应力应变场分布特征、应力集中问题,并将上述研究与已有的理论和试验成果进行对比。结果表明,运用细观有限元方法预测层状盐岩宏观弹性力学参数是一种直观有效的方法;泥岩和盐岩力学特性上的不匹配导致在层状盐岩的泥岩夹层中以及界面边缘处存在较为明显的应力集中和差异变形。单轴压缩时,泥岩体由于侧向变形能力差会受到横向拉伸应力作用而盐岩层则相应的受到横向压应力作用,三轴压缩时因围压和偏应力大小不同层状盐岩细观应力应变场分布特征则更为复杂;此方法能更为直观的分析层状盐岩的变形和破损特征,这一分析结果对进一步进行层状盐岩体内油（气）储库硐室稳定性分析提供了理论基础。     

盐岩地下储库围岩界面变形与破损特性分析

鉴于盐岩地下储库界面对储气（油）库稳定性和密闭性的重要影响,分别从细观和宏观方面对其变形与破损特性开展研究。细观方面：开展含界面盐岩的电镜扫描试验,分析表明：盐岩与夹层界面处颗粒结合紧密、相互嵌合,胶结良好,为储库密闭性提供有利条件。宏观方面：基于复合岩体理论构建层状盐岩交接界面的应力表达式,进而分析界面的变形及破损特性。分析表明,界面附近应力状态极为复杂,硬夹层对盐岩体具有约束锚固作用,且界面处易产生应力集中,进而诱发储库围岩体裂纹扩展直至破坏。综合细观、宏观分析表明,裂纹起裂机制和渗透通道形成是界面的细观结构特性及其应力状态共同影响的结果。研究成果为进一步分析地下盐岩储库的稳定性和密闭性提供一定参考。     

A two-phase model for the description of the influence of cracks on the P- and S-wave velocities in dry and saturated rock samples

The premonitory variations of seismic-wave velocities before earthquakes originate from various cracking processes before the fracture. It can be shown that these variations are comparable with wave-velocity variations in porous model samples with defined pore sizes. Furthermore, it is possible to describe analytically the variation of wave velocities as a function of the parameter K₀, which describes the fracturing process, and a material/depth parameter AP. On the basis of the wave velocity vs. pressure curves of rocks, it is possible to determine K₀ and A. Using the material/depth parameter AP sediments in covering strata and eruptive rocks in regions of earthquakes of shallow to medium depth can be descirbed. A relationship between Δυ_D and ΔK₀ can be established. For acid to ultrabasic rocks, a variation of up to 2 km/s indicates a variation of K₀ of 0.1–1.0.Moreover, it is possible to establish a relationship between K₀ and the number as well as the mean length of cracks in the rock. The solutions differ depending on the cracks being closed or open. For closed cracks a wave-velocity minimum of 6% results. For oper cracks the variations of the number and mean length of cracks are taken into account by means of a stochastic process; the resulting variations of K₀ and the wave velocity car adequately explain the variations in seismic-wave velocity. Variations of the pore pressure have an influence on K₀and the wave velocity only under most favourable geologica conditions; generally they are insignificant. Also for S-wavc velocities and for the ratio υ_p/υ_s the wave velocity vs. pressure equations are valid; it is possible to state K₀ and A-values.     

A sensitivity study on the numerical model of displacement and deformation of embedded brittle rock bodies in extension environment during salt tectonics

Many salt bodies contain large rock inclusions (called stringers) such as carbonate or anhydrite bodies. Mostly, large rock inclusions embedded in salt bodies have different ways of movement and deformation, including displacement, folding and fracturing. A finite element model with adaptive remeshing has been built for downbuilding simulation. The standard model set-up is constrained by observations from the South Oman Salt Basin. Based on the generic model in the previous research which shows the fracture, overtrusting or folding deformation during downbuilding process, a sensitivity study has been conducted on the numerical model of the deformation and displacement of brittle rock bodies, including the parameters such as the initial depth and the distance between them. The results of simulation are analyzed based on the data from SOSB and Zechstein salt basin. The study shows that the frequency of the break and the size of stringer fragments are strongly affected by the initial depth and thickness of stringers and the basement configuration.     

用渗透性随深度变化规律确定大尺度岩体变形模量

采用渗流场-应力场耦合的观点,用表征渗透性的单位吸水量数据,反求了岩体宏观力学参数——岩体变形模量。裂隙岩体的渗透性大小是裂隙宽度的函数,而岩体不同深度的裂隙宽度由应力大小和变形模量决定,因此可以通过裂隙宽度把渗透性参数和岩体力学参数结合起来。以小浪底水库左岸砂泥岩裂隙岩体T41地层为实例研究表明,该方法求得的岩体变形模量符合随着应力增大而增加这一规律,也符合风化岩体变形模量相对较小这一规律,并且数量级与收集到的相近岩体的变形模量一致,因此所求结果是可靠的。     

含杂质盐岩加载全过程的渗透试验研究

为了探讨杂质含量对盐岩力学行为和渗透特性的影响,对不同杂质含量的盐岩进行三轴压缩全过程的气体渗透试验。研究表明,气体渗透作用下杂质含量的增加使得盐岩峰值应力逐步增大而峰值应变逐步减小,应力-应变曲线呈现出向应变零点处的纵坐标"收缩"的状态;杂质含量和围压的变化都会对盐岩的渗透率大小产生影响,当杂质含量小于等于50%时围压的影响较杂质的影响大,当杂质含量大于50%时杂质含量的影响较围压大;围压增大使得盐岩的渗透率减小,渗透率最小值前移,且受杂质影响的范围向前扩大;围压的增大使得杂质影响下的峰值应力处的渗透率和应力零点处的渗透率之间的差异变大,杂质含量的增大使得峰值处的渗透率增大。     

变形稳定理论在盐岩储气库优化设计中的应用

为解决盐岩储气库洞室形状以及库群布置的优化设计问题,将变形加固理论发展和完善为变形稳定理论,把塑性余能与强度折减系数的K-ΔE关系曲线作为储气库群的整体稳定性判据。在变形稳定理论的基础上,对不同形状和布置方式的洞室的整体稳定性进行定量评价,优化分析了洞室形状以及库群的布置方式,进而获得最具安全稳定性的洞室形状和布置方式。研究结果表明,变形稳定理论为盐岩储气库洞室形状和洞群布置方式的优化设计提供了一套实用有效的分析理论和方法。     

周期荷载下盐岩的疲劳变形及损伤特性研究

利用RMT－150C型岩石力学多功能试验机,进行了盐岩单轴循环荷载作用下的疲劳试验,研究了盐岩的疲劳强度、变形及损伤特性。试验结果表明,当上限应力大于“门槛值”时,盐岩疲劳破坏时的轴向应变可以分为初始变形、等速变形和加速变形3个阶段,呈疏－密－疏的发展过程。改变上限应力和平均应力会显著影响疲劳的进程,提高上限应力值和平均应力值,初始轴向变形和循环轴向变形的比率都会提高,疲劳破坏时的总循环次数显著减小。盐岩疲劳破坏终点的变形量同样受静态轴向应力-应变全过程曲线的控制,控制误差范围在10%左右。循环荷载作用下,盐岩的变形模量经历了一个先逐渐增加,后缓慢降低,最后加速减小的过程。对循环荷载作用下盐岩疲劳损伤演化规律进行了初步探讨