Small town growth and development policy in Pakistan

This study examines the process of small town development and growth in Pakistan. It has been found that small towns located in the agriculturally developed areas have better opportunities for development than those that lie in less developed agricultural areas. Although government economic development policies have influenced the location and development of small towns, local leadership plays an important role in the socioeconomic development of small towns.     

Baluchistan (Pakistan): Its development and planning policy

They study examines the relationship between the social and economic environments of the tribal people of Baluchistan. It also evaluates how tribal organizations have been affected by geographic and economic constraints. Analyzing the spatial relationship between economic development and social structure, study has been made to isolate the effect of interrelated technical, economic and ecological processes accompanying development in Baluchistan. In the light of the current planning policies adopted in the area, an attempt has been made to determine whether any measurable spatial restructuring of these simple communities has occurred at macro and micro levels.     

孝妇河源头地区岩溶地下水资源可持续利用的决策支持研究

基于运筹学和系统工程学的基本理论，建立了地下水最优控制模型，并采用微分动态规划方法进行求解，最后直接根据淄博市孝妇河源头地区地下水资源的可持续利用需求，建立了该区的地下水最优控制模型，并求得了最优解。     

Rural development planning in Pakistan

Summary and Perspectives Most of the rural development plans and green revolution technology attempted in Pakistan between the years 1950 and 1970 were a part of induced transformations and institutional innovations. These attempts did bring some advances in productivity in Pakistan. In recent years, Panjab broke the international records in wheat production. But, a review of rural development efforts and wide application of induced innovations provide mixed results. Since 1972, the Integrated Rural Development has been adopted as a model for country's agrarian reforms, because of the gains at Shadab Project. The success of Shadab was impressive indeed, but Pakistan's economy, history, and society call for caution and raise scepticism, as were rightly pointed out byRuttan (12) for Integrated Rural Development Program.Success of Shadab Project was in large part due to well guided input of human resources devoted to organizational, management and technical assistance. Extensive extension services, model demonstration farms, publicity, and the training of farmers in various new techniques of agriculture were provided. The history of other development efforts prove that similar intensity of resource input cannot be maintained, when the program is generalized.Furthermore, the administrative freedom usually available in pilot projects of limited geographic extent to tailor programs precisely to local, national, and human endowments is usually not available in widespread use due to administrative inconveniences. Likewise, resources of physical, and institutional infrastructure are likely to diminish when the program is spread widely. Another perspective which worries the historical-cultural geographers is the dominant cultural attitudes and preferences of the village people in Pakistan.Pakistani way of life does not set man so much against the nature, as he often has been in the western world. Man is viewed as a part of nature, who can be happy and successful if he adjusts himself to his habitat. Rural Pakistan values leisure as an end in itself, and believes in its predestiny as set by one's luck. This luck-leisure attitude is one of the graces of rural Pakistan, and often serves as an impediment to quick induced changes, which did not evolve from within their own society.Deh Nareja, which this author is studying for the past 23 years as his laboratory to study rural changes, is a good example. Deh Nareja is an assemblage for six villages, with about 1000 people, located 15 km southwest of Tatta. The Deh is linked with Tatta, a tourist town and headquarter of the district administration, by a canal path and a surfaced road. Proximity and spatial linkage with Tatta have made the people of Deh Nareja more mobile, than their counterparts in other villages. In spite of this interchange, and exposure of farmers to other ways of life in the town, Deh Nareja remains a repository of traditional values, and traditional agriculture.Comparison of two maps of Deh Nareja, substantiates this point (Fig. 2). In order to improve the field ditches and save the water lost to seepage and spills, a survey was done in early 1960, to lay the fields in a rectangular pattern. Equal amount of land which belonged to a farmer as an irregular field was given to the farmer in a rectangular pattern (Fig 3). It took considerable amount of time and resources to accomplish the task, but the rural people resisted this change to the extent that the entire plan had to be abandoned. The traditional sentimental love of one's own land, its hereditary linkage were far more important than an efficient irrigation and agriculture.However, consequent to March 1972 land reforms, certain changes were visible in the attitude of the farmers. During a visit again to Deh Nareja and to a number of other villages in Pakistan in the summer of 1976, a certain optimism and hope was noticeable amongst the villagers. The farmers seemed to be more conscious of their rights; they were more aggressive, and were looking forward to a better future. Comparing with their former subdued and downtrodden condition, their changed situation and perceptions can better be expressed by the term agro-nauts. The term agro-naut is introduced here for the present conscious, partly reliant, and aggressive farmers, as against subdued, downtrodden and exploited peasants. Like astronauts, these agro-nauts still do not know their destiny or ramifications of induced changes, but seem to be prepared to accomplish something new. The first ever national conference of agro-nauts convened at Mandi Bahauddin, Panjab, and adoption of a national farmers charter were the steps in the right direction to enhance the confidence of the agro-nauts.Under this changed situation, the Integrated Rural Development Program, seems to have some potential, if environmental, cultural and historical roots of Pakistan are not ignored, and package transformations are induced without destroying the present producing ability of the farmers.     

Land subsidence and declining water resources in Quetta Valley, Pakistan

Extensive groundwater withdrawals in urban areas may cause water shortages, land subsidence, and water quality problems. The Quetta Valley is the largest population center in Balochistan province in western Pakistan. This area is arid and groundwater is the main water source for domestic and agricultural use. This work presents global positioning system (GPS) data and assessment of spatial and temporal variations in water levels. GPS data from two stations from mid-2006 to the beginning of 2009 show subsidence rate of 10 cm\year. Nine satellite images from 1975 to 2009 were classified and processed to quantify land cover and land use changes, which highlight an increase in agricultural areas in the central region of the Quetta Valley, as well as reduced vegetation on mountains. These data correspond to gradual temporal changes in water volumes in streams and lakes. Average temperatures have also increased and mean precipitation has decreased during this period. However, the greatest change in this area has been in population growth, which rose from 260,000 in 1975 to 1.2 million in 2010, mainly due to migration of refugees from war-torn neighboring Afghanistan. The Quetta Valley provides a good example for studying the impact of urbanization on water resources.     

Groundwater resources and development in China

Since the establishment of new China, great attention has been paid by the government to the investigation of groundwater resources. On the basis of regional hydrogeological mapping covering most parts of the territory, an overall evaluation of groundwater resources in China is about 872 billion m³/a, in which the amounts of pore water, fissure water, and karst water are calculated separately, and the consumption of groundwater is also accounted for. Much prospecting work has been carried out for the development of well irrigation as well as the urban water supply of industrial cities. This extensive work has provided a scientific basis for the rational development and utilization of groundwater resources. According to statistics, 11.3 million ha of arable land are irrigated with water from wells, and the annual exploitation of underground water has reached 40 billion m³. In 27 cities of North China, the output of groundwater reached 6.86 million m³/d, which amounted to 87% of the total water consumed. The distribution and different hydrogeological characteristics of groundwater resources in various regions are discussed in this article, including some environmental hydrogeological problems related to the exploitation and utilization of groundwater. In short, it is evident that groundwater resources play a significant role in both urban and rural water supply, and promote the development of agriculture and industries in China.     

Mineral resources and development in Africa

The Economy of African countries in colonial times was tied to those of Western developed countries largely through supply of their resources, as raw material, for industrialisation and markets for manufactured goods. Even today development is seen by many European countries only as an expansion of this role. But Africans themselves are beginning to regard process of industrialisation as the only way to increase their per capita income and reduce the present inequality in the world.The objective of most African countries to reach the level of prosperity of the Western Europe of today by the year 2000 can be achieved if a growth rate of 13% were possible. This rate, high and unattainable as it may look, will at that time produce hardly any appreciable closing of the gap in the per capita income of Western European and African nations. With the present rate of 6% growth for industrialised and developing countries the gap will widen unbridgeably by the year 2000.Africa depends largely on export of mineral resources for capital and will require even more mineral resources if it must industrialise. A survey of mineral resources of Africa shows that it has no mineral resources to give sustained impetus to industrialisation and is particularly lacking in energy. The desired rate of growth and industrialisation is heavily dependent on the political will of the Western developed countries, which to make this possible must allow massive transfer of capital and technology and a fairer world economic order. The alternative open to African countries is to go into economic and social isolation and attempt a revolutionary approach to development.Whichever approach is followed all African countries must develop new mineral policies which will lead to an accelerated and intensive exploration of the continent for greater variety and amount of metals and fuel minerals.

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Zusammenfassung Während der Kolonialzeit war die Wirtschaft Afrikas mit der westlicher entwickelter Länder im wesentlichen durch die Lieferung von Bodenschätzen als Rohstoff für die Industrialisierung und umgekehrt als Markt für Industriegüter verknüpft. Selbst heute noch wird Entwicklung von vielen europäischen Ländern als eine Ausweitung dieser Rolle gesehen. Doch die Afrikaner ihrerseits fangen an, den Prozeß der Industrialisierung als den einzigen Weg zu betrachten, ihr Pro-Kopf-Einkommen zu erhöhen und die gegenwärtige Ungleichheit in der Welt zu verringern.Das Ziel der meisten afrikanischen Länder, das Wohlstandsniveau des heutigen Westeuropas bis zum Jahre 2000 zu erreichen, würde voraussetzen, daß eine Wachstumsrate von 13% möglich wäre. Eine solche Rate, so hoch und unerreichbar sie aussehen mag, würde jedoch nicht die Lücke zwischen dem Pro-Kopf-Einkommen Westeuropas und dem afrikanischer Staaten zufriedenstellend verkleinern. Angesichts der gegenwärtigen Rate von 6% Wachstum für industrialisierte und Entwicklungsländer wird die Lücke sich bis zum Jahr 2000 unüberbrückbar weiter geöffnet haben.Afrika ist weitgehend abhängig vom Export von Bodenschätzen gegen Kapital, und es wird mehr Bodenschätze brauchen für eigene Industrialisierung. Eine Bestandsaufnahme der Bodenschätze Afrikas zeigt, daß keine ausreichenden Bodenschätze für eine andauernde Industrialisierung vorhanden sind, und es fehlt vor allem an Energierohstoffen. Die erstrebte Wachstumsrate und Industrialisierung hängt wesentlich von dem politischen Willen der westlichen entwickelten Länder ab, die, um die zu ermöglichen, für massiven Transfer von Kapital und Technologie und eine gerechtere Weltwirtschaftsordnung sorgen müßten. Die Alternative besteht in wirtschaftlicher und gesellschaftlicher Isolation und in revolutionären Entwicklungsversuchen.Welchen Weg die afrikanischen Länder auch wählen, sie müssen in bezug auf ihre Bodenschätze eine neue Politik entwickeln, die zu einer schnelleren und gründlicheren Erschließung des Kontinentes hinsichtlich einer größeren Menge und Vielfalt an Metallen und Energierohstoffen führt.

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Résumé Au temps du colonialisme, l'économie africaine était essentiellement liée aux pays développés de l'ouest par la livraison de richesses naturelles en tant que matières premières pour l'industrialisation dans un sens, et en tant que marché pour les marchandises industrielles dans l'autre. Aujourd'hui encore, beaucoup de pays européens voient dans l'aide aux pays en voie développement, un élargissement de ce rôle. Pourtant, les africains de leur côté, commencent à considérer le procès de l'industrialisation comme la seule voie pour élever leur revenu moyen et pour réduire l'inégalité dans le monde à l'époque actuelle.Pour que la plupart des pays africains puissent atteindre le niveau de prospérité de l'actuelle Europe de l'ouest, avant l'an 2000, il faudrait à priori, un taux de croissance de 13%. Cependant, un tel taux, aussi haut et inaccessible qu'il puisse paraître, ne pourrait pas diminuer de façon satisfaisante l'espace entre le revenu moyen en Europe de l'ouest et celui des pays africains. Vu le taux de développement actuel de 6% aussi bien en pays industriels qu'en pays en voie de développement, cet espace ne fera que de s'agrandir jusqu'à l'an 2000 et ceci de façon insurmontable.L'Afrique dépend, en majeur partie, de l'exportation de richesses naturelles contre des capitaux et il lui faudra encore plus de richesses naturelles pour réaliser sa propre industrialisation. Un inventaire de richesses naturelles de l'Afrique montre qu'il n'y a pas de richesses naturelles suffisantes pour une industrialisation de longue durée et qu'il y manque, avant tout, de matières premières énergétiques. Le future taux de développement et d'industrialisation dépend essentiellement du consentement politique des pays de l'ouest, qui dans ce but devraient pourvoir à d'importants transferts de capitaux et de technologie et à un ordre équitable de l'économie mondiale. La seule alternative consiste dans l'isolation économique et sociale et dans des essais de développement révolutionnaires.Quelque soit la voie prise par les pays africains, il leur faudra développer une politique nouvelle en ce qui concerne leurs richesses naturelles. Cette politique les conduira vers une mise en exploitation plus profonde du continent, en vue de produire une plus grande quantité et multiplicité de métaux et de matières premières énergétiques.

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Submarine hydrocarbons in Southeast Asia resources,environment, and policy

This paper reviews some issues related to the existence, ownership, and development of SE Asia's offshore oil and gas resources. First, the resource potential in submarine areas of the region and the rate at which this potential will be developed is discussed. Some environmental concerns that arise from the development of these resources are then reviewed. The international dimension of those environment-related problems is pointed out. Application of benefit/cost analysis in addressing these complex issues is then discussed, in the context of economic development.     

Salinity management and water resources development

The interrelationship of salinity management and water management is a factor which is sometimes easily overlooked in the water resources planning, even though it can place a limit on the degree of water resource development within a basin. Costs and control measures of salinity management are considered on a case study of the Colorado River basin where salinity damages are found to be higher than previously estimated. After review of the costs of salinity management, the possible control measures, and research on adaptions in agricultural use of more saline water, it can be concluded that, at very least, the management of water quantity and water quality, especially in arid regions, are closely intertwined.     

Sustainable development and groundwater resources exploitation

 In evaluating groundwater development both the positive and negative effects must be considered; otherwise biased conclusions may be reached. Only with equal concern for the needs of present and future generations, fair exchange of technology between countries and user involvement can sustainable groundwater development be achieved. Examination of the use of the term aquifer overexploitation shows that there is no agreement on a single definition. In most cases it relates to the overuse of aquifers, but in other cases it is a planned overuse. In Spain, overexploitation is dealt with in the water act and implemented by the regulations that enforce that act. Experience has shown that without the cooperation of the water users themselves, good results are not obtained. Relevant education is urgently needed for the public and those decision makers responsible for determining the correct use of groundwater resources for the present and future generations. Received: July 1997 · Accepted: 15 September 1997     

Mineral resources and development in the Russian Arctic

The paper concerns issues of geology and metallogeny of the Russian Arctic, namely, (i) limits of the Russian oceanic Arctic in the context of the continental origin of territories under jurisdictional dispute; (ii) geology and tectonic history of the region; (iii) distribution of mineral deposits; (iv) outlook for diamond, PGE, Ni, rare metals, gold, and bauxite resources development.Advanced diamond exploration and development can be expected proceeding from geology of new potentially diamondiferous areas, the Phanerozoic history and composition of lithospheric mantle beneath the Siberian craton which were controlled by the Siberian superplume at the Permian–Triassic boundary, and from new exploration approaches adapted to the prospecting conditions of Arctic Siberia.According to the available knowledge of Ni and PGE mineralization in the Noril’sk region, it is reasonable to develop depleted ores and tailings (mining dumps at the Noril’sk and Talnakh deposits). However, the key solution consists in new large discoveries within the Dzheltula and Kharaelakh volcanic and plutonic complexes.Gold production enhancement may be associated with black shale-hosted Au-As mineralization in the northeastern Russian Arctic, but the problem is in the lack of efficient and environmentally safe dressing technologies for these ores.Most of rare metals in the area (Nb, Sc, Y, and other elements) are stored in the giant Tomtor field, which has a complex structure and history. A special technology designed for the Tomtor ores ensures more than 60% extraction of ore components.Good prospects for the bauxite potential are expected from the Timan district where bauxite may occur in Vendian and Early Carboniferous formations.It is suggested to include the development of the Russian Arctic as a priority target in the national economic strategy.     

天津市地下水资源与可持续利用

天津市是我国主要缺水城市之一.1990～2000年地表水年平均用水量16.33×108m3,地下水年平均用水量7.11×108m3,地下水的供水比例约占30%左右.1990～2002年,按全国统一部署,对天津市地下水资源进行了新一轮评价,评价结果是天津市地下水天然资源为18.13×108m3/a,矿化度小于5g/L的天然资源为15.75×108m3/a,可开采资源为8.27×108m3/a,其中浅层水2.58×108m3/a,深层水3.56×108m3/a,隐伏岩溶水1.24×108m3/a,山区1.10×108m3/a.天津市地下水开采程度已达90.45%,除蓟县、宝坻、宁河、静海略有盈余,其余各区、县已超采.要解决天津市规划需水量(2010年)56.76×108m3/a的要求,必须采取外调水源、工农业节水和污水回收利用、海水淡化利用、利用坑、塘、洼、淀尽可能拦蓄汛期弃水等措施.天津市每年7×108～8×108m3的地下水资源为多年稳定补给的地下水资源,属可持续利用的水资源,但必须调整开采布局,压缩深层水的开采量,以遏制地面沉降继续发展.在连续干旱年份,为解决城镇生产及生活用水的燃眉之急,保证城市供水安全,建立一种非常规的并有一定开采周期的应急供水水源地,可缓解一部分供水压力.经初步论证,蓟县平原区和宝坻中北部第四系全淡水区及邻近的咸水分布区,有望建成大型集中供水水源地.经勘查,蓟县城关、西龙虎峪、宝坻石化、宁河县北部岩溶水等4个蓄水构造,也具备建设集中供水水源地的条件.用于应急供水的水源地总可开采量约100.57×104m3/d(3.67×108m3/a),可供市区水量为64.5×104m3/d(2.35×108m3/a).对于类似天津市这种特大型城市,建立供水水源储备机制,具有重要的战略意义.     

Tourism resources and their development in Maldive Islands

Maldive Islands are characterized by a unique coral nature and thus they posses unique tourism resources though in a one-sided way, namely in the submarine and littoral environment of the islands, lagoons and reefs, associated with the year-round tropical climate. Therefore, not only divers and snorklers enjoy the profuse underwater resources, but also beach tourists are attracted by the nature of the beaches and the climatic conditions as well. This environment really guarantees relaxation and recreation. Tourism in Maldives which was introduced in 1972 only, has successfully developed so far. Proof is given by the rapidly growing number of tourists and tourist resorts (islands) over the past 10 year period. On the European market, Maldives today rank among the most attractive tourist destinations in the tropics. Maldives offer large natural resources for tourism to be further developed in the future. The sensitive environment does however call for most considerate measures.     

Coal resources of the Sonda coal field, Sindh Province, Pakistan

Approximately 4.7 billion t of original coal resources, ranging from lignite A to subbituminous C in rank, are estimated to be present in the Sonda coal field. These resources occur in 10 coal zones in the Bara Formation of Paleocene age. The Bara Formation does not out crop in the area covered by this report. Thin discontinuous coal beds also occur in the Sonhari Member of the Laki Formation, of Paleocene and Eocene age, but they are unimportant as a resource of the Sonda coal field.The coal resource assessment was based on 56 exploratory drill holes that were completed in the Sonda field between April 1986 and February 1988. The Sonda coal field is split into two, roughly equal, areas by the southwestward flowing Indus River, a major barrier to the logistics of communications between the two halves. As a result the two halves, called the Sonda East and Sonda West areas, were evaluated at different times by slightlydifferent techniques; but, because the geology is consistent between the two areas, the results of both evaluations have been summarized in this report. The resource estimates for the Sonda East area, approximately 1,700 million t, were based on the thickest coal bed in each zone at each drill hole. This method gives a conservative estimate of the total amount of coal in the Sonda East area. The resource estimates for the Sonda West area, approximately 3,000 million t, were based on cumulative coal bed thicknesses within each coal zone, resulting in a more liberal estimate. In both cases, minimum parameters for qualifying coal were a thickness of 30 cm or greater and no more than 50% ash; partings thicker than 1 cm were excluded. The three most important coal zones in the Sonda field are the Inayatabad, the Middle Sonda and the Lower Sonda. Together, these three coal zones contain 50% of the total resources. Isopachs were constructed for the thickest coal beds in these three coal zones and indicate large variations in thickness over relatively small distances. Coal beds in the Sonda coal field were difficult to correlate because of poor core recovery in some intervals and abrupt lateral thinning and thickening. Most coal zones are separated by 5–10 m of interburden, although in some places the interburden between zones is over 100 m thick. More closely spaced drill holes should clarify and significantly improve coal zone correlations in the Bara Formation.Coal resources in the Sonda coal field were calculated for three reliability categories; measured, indicated, and inferred. The most reliable estimates are those for the measured category. Measured coal resources are approximately 91 million t, or about 2% of the total resource; indicated resources are 681 million t, or about 14% of the total; and inferred resources, the least reliable resource category, are 3,931 million t, or 84% of the total resources. The distribution of resources by reliability category is due to the relatively wide spacing (approximately 5 km) between core holes.Analyses of 90 coal samples, on an as-received basis, indicate average ash and sulfur contents of 13.7% and 3.6%, respectively, and a range in rank from lignite A to subbituminous C. Calorific values for these samples range from 6,000 to 8,000 Btu/lb (1 Btu = 1055J; 1 lb = 4536 kg).     

The natural resources development debate in Canada

The current debate concerning natural resources developed in Canadais examined against the background of population distribution, electoral distribution, variations in regional economies, foreign investment, federal versus provincial jurisdiction over resources, and the demands for constitutional reform. These have resulted in an essential division between the resource producing regions of the west and, to a lesser extent the extreme east, and the resource consuming region in the centre. After establishing the context for resource development, the paper goes on to assess the debate as it has evolved with respect to offshore fishery resources on the Atlantic Coast, potash in Saskatchewan and petroleum and natural gas in the western provinces.     

国土资源与西部大开发

实施西部大开发战略，是以江泽民同志为核心的党的第三代领导集体，按照邓小平同志关于“两个大局”的思想，高瞻远瞩，作出的重大战略决策。中国科协、中国工程院、新疆维吾尔自治区人民政府联合主办这次论坛，对“优化配置西部资源，坚持高效持续发展”进行专题研讨，很有意义。我就国土资源与西部大开发问题，谈３点意见。１国土资源在西部大开发中具有重要地位和作用对经济欠发达地区，国内外都有过大规模开发的历史。但我们现在进行的西部大开发，是在特定的资源环境条件下的大开发，是在我国现代化建设进入新的发展阶段的大开发，是在…