Particle size distribution of cataclastic fault materials from Southern California: A 3-D study

The particle size distributions of fault gouge from the San Andreas, the San Gabriel, and the Lopez Canyon faults in Southern California were measured using sieving and Coulter-Counter techniques over a range of particle sizes from 2 m to 16 mm. The distributions were found to be power law (fractal) for the smaller fragments and log-normal by mass for sizes near and above the peak size. The apparent fractal dimensionD of the smaller particles in gouge samples from the San Andreas fault, the San Gabriel fault and the Lopez Canyon gouge were 2.4–3.6, 2.6–2.9 and 2.4–3.0, respectively. The averageD for the Lopez Canyon gouge was 2.7±0.2, which is in agreement with earlier studies of this gouge using planar 2-D sections. The fractal dimension of the finer fragments from all three faults is observed to be correlated with the peak fragment size, with finer gouges tending to have a largerD. A computer automaton is used to show that this observation may be explained as resulting from a fragmentation process which has a grinding limit at which particle reduction stops.     

温度压力孔隙压力对断层泥强度及滑动性质的影响

在不同的压力、温度和孔隙压力下进行了含四种不同断层泥标本的强度试验。碎屑型断层泥对压力很敏感,对温度无反应,对孔隙压力的反应符合有效应力律。粘土类断层泥则对温度和孔隙压力有明显响应。这些力学性质的差别反映了具体变形机制的差别     

高温高压下红河断裂带断层泥力学性质的研究

断层泥在室温高压下的应力-应变曲线呈非线性、线性等阶段性变形,在高温高压下则呈非线性变形,两者均表现出渐进破坏。含水量、矿物成分和温压条件对变形特征和破坏强度有重要影响。曲线的初始弹性模量小于有效弹性模量。断层泥在温度T≥400℃和σ_3≥300MPa时发生岩化,据此岩化温压条件可估计出未岩化断层泥存在深度将不超过10—15km。由于断层泥具渐进破坏特征,故在高温高压条件下断层泥有利于断层活动呈现稳滑     

Clay gouges in the San Andreas Fault System and their possible implications

Summary In the northern and central sections of the San Andreas Fault Zone, and along Calaveras and Hayward faults, clay gouges have been found to occur on the surface and at shallow depths.It is consistent with the available geochemical data that such gouges can exist at depths down to 10 km. If extensive gouge materials exist in a fault zone then their properties will determine, to a large extent, the behavior of the fault. From known properties of clays in the presence of water we can infer that, in such cases, the tectonic stress and the stress drops for earthquakes will be low and substantial creep will take place before earthquakes.     

The kinematics of gouge deformation

The methods and first results of a new approach to examining fault gouge are described. Samples of undisturbed fault gouge from the exhumed Lopez fault zone in the San Gabriel Mountains, California were impregnated with low viscosity epoxy resin and sectioned to produce microscope slides. The slides were photographed using optical and electron microscopy with magnifications ranging in factors of 2 from 12.5 to 1600. At all scales, the particles appeared angular with planar faces, suggesting tensile failure. No shear zones were discernable. The particle size distribution was studied. At each magnification the particles were sorted by diameter into four classes, differing in mean diameter by factors of 2. The numbers in each class were then scaled by the characteristic class dimension. The process revealed a remarkable degree of self-similarity. Over the range examined, the fractal dimension was within 5% of 2.60.On the basis of the observations, a new model for the mechanical processes that generate gouge is offered. It is argued that self-similarity results from repeated tensile splitting of grains. Unlike earlier models that consider splitting probability to be either independent of particle size or due to the preexisting distribution of defects, we propose that failure probability depends largely on the relative size of nearest neighbors. If nearest neighbors of the same size are preferentially broken, any initial distribution of particles will tend toward a self-similar distribution having a fractal dimension of 2.58.The model allows us to outline a procedure whereby the observed comminution in a fault zone can be related to the shear strain that the zone has accommodated and propose a theoretical frequency magnitude relation for the seismic energy emitted by the fracture process.     

虹口八角庙-深溪沟炭质泥岩同震断层泥的X射线衍射分析结果

5.12汶川地震同震地表破裂带在虹口八角-深溪沟一带主要出露于三叠系须家河组的炭质泥岩中,同震断层泥在颜色、结构上与老断层泥和围岩类似。通过开挖探槽,系统采样,采用粉晶X射线衍射定量分析方法,研究了同震地表破裂带的围岩、断层角砾岩、老断层泥和新断层泥的矿物成分特征。同震断层泥的主要成分为石英和黏土矿物,含微量长石和白云石;断层泥的显著特征为高黏土矿物含量,从同震断层泥、老断层泥、角砾岩到围岩黏土矿物含量依次降低,黏土矿物以伊利石和伊蒙混层为主,含微量绿泥石和高岭石,矿物组成明显比地表破裂带北段同震断层泥简单。不同颜色的同震断层泥成分略有不同,黑色断层泥中伊利石含量明显高于白色断层泥;老断层泥中含有方解石和白云石,而同震断层泥不含方解石,只含微量白云石。同震断层泥中伊蒙混层高含量表明,在本次地震错动中有富含K的流体参与。     

Microstructural features of fault gouges from Tianjing-shan-Xiangshan fault zone and their geological implications

Detailed observation of the microstructural features of 11 fault gouge and 3 fault breccia samples collected from Tianjingshan-Xiangshan fault zone has revealed that fault gouge can be classified into 3 types: flow banded granular gouge, foliated gouge and massive gouge. The determination of the shape preferred orientation (SPO) of survivor grains in fault gouges indicates that the foliated gouge displays a profound SPO inclined to the shear zone boundary, similar to theP-foliation; flow banded granular gouge displays a SPO parallel to the shear zone boundary, while massive fault gouge and fault breccia display a random SPO. All these fault gouges fall in different fields of shear rate ternary diagram.     

Water-rock interactions in fault gouge

Measurements were made of the amounts of D,¹⁸O, and H₂O⁺ in fault gouge collected over a depth of 400 m in the San Andreas fault of California. The amounts and isotopic compositions of the pore fluids, also analyzed, suggest that formation waters from adjacent Franciscan rocks have migrated into the gouge and mixed with local meteoric water. Thus the gouge is an open system permeable to fluid flow. This permeability has important implications concerning heat flow along the fault zone.Analyses of the fault gouge itself give information on the amounts, timing, and conditions of formation of the clay minerals.Stable-isotope analyses of materials from fault zones are good indicators of water-rock interactions that bear importantly on processes taking place in seismically active regions.     

海原活动断裂中断层泥的特征、成因及其对断层滑动性能的影响

本文对海原断裂的断层泥的各类特征进行了系统的研究,分析了断层泥带内部的小型断裂类型,探讨了断层泥组分的有机地球化学意义。通过对比,确立了石英碎屑表面机械作用成因的电子显微构造特征组合为活断层的判别标志。本文将石英碎屑表面电子显微溶蚀构造分为五类,据此分析了断层活动时期和状态。研究中还发现了断层泥带内部电子显微结构类型,进而分析了断层活动与微结构、粒度分布间的关系。最后还讨论了断层泥形成演化过程以及断层泥对全新世以来断层滑动性能影响及其与地震活动的关系     

The Fractal Feature of Granulometric Composition in Fault Gouges from the Yishu Fault Zone and Adjacent Northwest-Trending Faults and Its Seismo-geological Implications

In this work,the fractal dimension of granulometric composition in the fault gouge from the Yishu fault zone and northwest-trending faults on its west side is calculated and studied based on the fractal theory of rock fragmentation.The seismo-geological implications of the fractal dimension of granulometric composition in fault gouges are also discussed.The results show that the Yishu fault zone is more active than the northwest-trending faults and the Anqiu-Juxian fault is the most active in the Yishu fault zone.The fractal dimension of fault gouge is a parameter describing the relative active age and rupture mode of the fault and forming age of the fault gouge.The fractal dimension value is also related to the parent rock,thickness,structural position,and clay content of the fault gouge.     

龙门山断裂带金河磷矿剖面断层泥的低速至高速摩擦性质研究

本文对龙门山断裂带金河磷矿浅钻岩芯中的三种断层泥开展了低速到高速摩擦滑动的实验研究,并对实验变形样品开展了BET比表面积研究.摩擦实验在干燥和孔隙水压条件下开展,速率范围涵盖20 μm·s^-1~1.4 m·s^-1.实验结果显示,三种断层泥在干燥条件下的摩擦性质差别不大,但在孔隙水压条件下,三者的中低速摩擦强度与层状硅酸盐矿物的种类而非总含量紧密相关,蒙脱石和伊利石相比绿泥石更能有效地弱化断层.三种断层泥在孔隙水压条件下存在中低速率域的速度强化,暗示着对断层的加速滑动存在一定的阻碍作用.孔隙水压下,黄绿色和灰绿色断层泥的初始动态弱化非常迅速并伴随断层泥层的瞬时扩容,凹凸体急剧加热导致的局部热压作用可能是造成这种力学行为的物理机制.在经历高速滑动之后,三种断层泥在干、湿条件下的BET比表面积都显著降低,暗示着可能发生了颗粒烧结.中低速域内,孔隙水的存在使得断层泥呈现分散式的剪切变形,BET比表面积的增加因此比干燥条件下更加明显.对表面能的估算表明,颗粒磨碎所消耗的能量至多不超过摩擦力做功的8%,暗示着断层作用中颗粒磨碎所占的能量比例较低.     

Mineralogy and physical nature of clay gouge

Fault gouges have been observed in the surface outcrops, in shallow excavations, and in deep (300 meters below the surface) tunnels and mines in fault zones. The 2-microns fractions in these fault gouges may compose a few percent to more than fifty percent of the total mass in the outcrops, and the mineralogy of the 2-microns fractions consists of a variety of clays (the common ones are montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite, chlorite, vermiculite and mixed-layer clays) and some quartz, feldspars, etc.Although we cannot yet conclude directly from the studies of gouges that similar gouges exist at depths where many large shallow earthquakes are generated, there is a strong possibility that they do, based on (1) available equilibrium data on various clays — for example, kaolinite has been found to exist at 4 kb and 375°C (±15°C) (Thompson, 1970) and montmorillonite + kaolite has been found to exist at 450°C and 4 kb (Velde, 1969); (2) the compatibility of laboratory velocity data in gouge (Wang et al., 1977) with those in a model for central California (Healy andPeake, 1975); (3) the capability of clays to undergo sudden earthquake-like displacements (Summers andByerlee, 1977); (4) the petrology of intrafault cataclastic rocks in old fault zones (Kasza, 1977); and (5) the compatibility of gouge mineralogy with the mineralogy of hydrothermal clay deposits.If clay gouges are indeed significant components of the fault zone at depth, then the mechanical properties of clays under confining pressures up to 4 kb are important in the behavior of faults. Very few experiments have been performed under such high pressures. But from the physical makeup of clays, we can infer that (1) the range of possible behavior includes stable sliding with vermiculite and montmorillonite (asByerlee andSummers, 1977, have proven) to stick-slip-like behavior with kaolinite, chlorite, etc.; (2) the absence or presence of water will greatly affect the strengths of gouges — it is possible that water may reduce the strength of gouge to a fairly small value.     

Seismic measurements of the internal properties of fault zones

The internal properties within and adjacent to fault zones are reviewed, principally on the basis of laboratory, borehole, and seismic refraction and reflection data. The deformation of rocks by faulting ranges from intragrain microcracking to severe alteration. Saturated microcracked and mildly fractured rocks do not exhibit a significant reduction in velocity, but, from borehole measurements, densely fractured rocks do show significantly reduced velocities, the amount of reduction generally proportional to the fracture density. Highly fractured rock and thick fault gouge along the creeping portion of the San Andreas fault are evidenced by a pronounced seismic low-velocity zone (LVZ), which is either very thin or absent along locked portions of the fault. Thus there is a correlation between fault slip behavior and seismic velocity structure within the fault zone; high pore pressure within the pronounced LVZ may be conductive to fault creep. Deep seismic reflection data indicate that crustal faults sometimes extend through the entire crust. Models of these data and geologic evidence are consistent with a composition of deep faults consisting of highly foliated, seismically anisotropic mylonites.     

Internal structure of the Nojima Fault zone from the Hirabayashi GSJ drill core

Abstract The internal structures of the Nojima Fault, south-west Japan, are examined from mesoscopic observations of continuous core samples from the Hirabayashi Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ) drilling. The drilling penetrated the central part of the Nojima Fault, which ruptured during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake) ( M 7.2). It intersected a 0.3 m-thick layer of fault gouge, which is presumed to constitute the fault core (defined as a narrow zone of extremely concentrated deformation) of the Nojima Fault Zone. The rocks obtained from the Hirabayashi GSJ drilling were divided into five types based on the intensities of deformation and alteration: host rock, weakly deformed and altered granodiorite, fault breccia, cataclasite, and fault gouge. Weakly deformed and altered granodiorite is distributed widely in the fault zone. Fault breccia appears mostly just above the fault core. Cataclasite is distributed mainly in a narrow (≈1 m wide) zone in between the fault core and a smaller gouge zone encountered lower down from the drilling. Fault gouge in the fault core is divided into three types based on their color and textures. From their cross-cutting relationships and vein development, the lowest fault gouge in the fault core is judged to be newer than the other two. The fault zone characterized by the deformation and alteration is assumed to be deeper than 426.2 m and its net thickness is > 46.5 m. The fault rocks in the hanging wall (above the fault core) are deformed and altered more intensely than those in the footwall (below the fault core). Furthermore, the intensities of deformation and alteration increase progressively towards the fault core in the hanging wall, but not in the footwall. The difference in the fault rock distribution between the hanging wall and the footwall might be related to the offset of the Nojima Fault and/or the asymmetrical ground motion during earthquakes.     

Distribution of fault rocks in the fracture zone of the Nojima Fault at a depth of 1140 m: Observations from the Hirabayashi NIED drill core

Abstract Characteristics of deformation and alteration of the 1140 m deep fracture zone of the Nojima Fault are described based on mesoscopic (to the naked eye) and microscopic (by both optical and scanning electron microscopes) observations of the Hirabayashi National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) drill core. Three types of fault rocks; that is, fault breccia, fault gouge and cataclasite, appear in the central part of the fault zone and two types of weakly deformed and/or altered rocks; that is, weakly deformed and altered granodiorite and altered granodiorite, are located in the outside of the central part of the fault zone (damaged zone). Cataclasite appears occasionally in the damaged zone. Six distinct, thin foliated fault gouge zones, which dip to the south-east, appear clearly in the very central part of the fracture zone. Slickenlines plunging to the north-east are observed on the surface of the newest gouge. Based on the observations of XZ thin sections, these slickenlines and the newest gouge have the same kinematics as the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (Kobe earthquake), which was dextral-reverse slip. Scanning electron microscopy observations of the freeze-dried fault gouge show that a large amount of void space is maintained locally, which might play an important role as a path for fluid migration and the existence of either heterogeneity of pore fluid pressure or strain localization.     

FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES OF A NATURAL FAULT GOUGE FROM DRILLED CORES IN THE LONGMENSHAN FAULT ZONE CUTTING GRANITIC ROCK

In this paper, we report friction experiments performed on natural fault gouge samples embedded in granitic rock from drilled core by a project entitled "the Longmenshan Fault Shallow Drilling(LMFD)". Compared with other natural fault gouge, this yellow-greenish gouge(YGG)is dominantly chlorite-rich. The maximum content of chlorite reaches 47%in the YGG. To understand the frictional properties of the YGG sample, experiments were performed at constant confining pressure of 130MPa, with constant pore pressure of 50MPa and at different temperatures from 25℃ to 150℃. The experiments aim to address the frictional behavior of the YGG under shallow, upper crustal pressure, and temperature conditions. Compared with previous studies of natural gouge, our results show that the YGG is stronger and shows a steady state friction coefficient of 0.47~0.51. Comparison with previous studies of natural gouge with similar content of clay minerals indicates a sequence of strengths of different clay minerals:chlorite > illite > smectite. At temperatures up to 150℃ hence depths up to~8km in the Longmenshan region, the YGG shows stable velocity-strengthening behavior at shallow crustal conditions. Combined with the fact of strong direct velocity effect, i.e., (a-b)/a>0.5, faults cutting the present clastic lithology up to~8km depth in the Longmenshan fault zone(LFZ)are likely to offer stable sliding resistance, damping co-seismic rupture propagating from below at not-too-high slip rates. However, as the fault gouge generally has low permeability, co-seismic weakening through thermal pressurization may occur at high slip rates(>0.05m/s), leading to additional hazards.     

汶川地震断裂带粒度分布特征：对地震碎裂机制的约束

断层岩的粒度分布包含岩石破裂机制、摩擦性质和地震能量分配等重要信息。筛分-称重和激光测量是分析断层岩三维粒度的2种有效方法,但每一种方法的测量范围仅有3个量级,难以全面反映断层岩的粒度分布特征。利用上述2种方法对汶川地震断层滑动带上的断层岩（简称断层岩）的粒度分布进行了测量,粒径测量范围从0.2μm至16mm,跨度达到5个数量级。结果显示：1）存在临界粒径d_c（0.95～1.90μm）。粒度大于和小于d_c的颗粒满足不同的颗粒数（N_d）-粒径（d）分布关系,表明该断层岩的粒径分布不具有自相似性特征。2）利用粒度大于d_c的颗粒计算出的分形维数与断层岩类型有很好的相关性,即断层带边缘的角砾岩的平均分形维数为2.6,核部压碎角砾岩的平均分形维数约为3.0,中心断层泥的分形维数约为3.5。粒径小于d_c的颗粒的分形维数为1.7～2.1。分形维数的突变反映出断层破裂机制的复杂性,即在不同的粒度域,岩石的破裂机制不尽相同。3）依据粒度分析结果,估算出汶川地震断层泥的单位破裂能（E_s）为0.63MJ/m2。     

THE GEOLOGICAL AND ROCK MECHANICAL DISTINCTION EVIDENCE BETWEEN STICK-SLIP AND CREEP IN HOST ROCK SEGMENTS OF FAULT

Paleo-seismic and fault activity are hard to distinguish in host rock areas compared with soft sedimentary segments of fault. However, fault frictional experiments could obtain the conditions of stable and unstable slide, as well as the microstructures of fault gouge, which offer some identification marks between stick-slip and creep of fault. We summarized geological and rock mechanical distinction evidence between stick-slip and creep in host rock segments of fault, and analyzed the physical mechanisms which controlled the behavior of stick-slip and creep. The chemical composition of fault gouge is most important to control stick-slip and creep. Gouge composed by weak minerals, such as clay mineral, has velocity weakening behavior, which causes stable slide of fault. Gouge with rock-forming minerals, such as calcite, quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, has stick-slip behavior under condition of focal depth. To the gouge with same chemical composition, the deformation mechanism controls the frictional slip. It is essential condition to stick slip for brittle fracture companied by dilatation, but creep is controlled by compaction and cataclasis as well as ductile shear with foliation and small fold. However, under fluid conditions, pressure solution which healed the fractures and caused strength recovery of fault, is the original reason of unstable slide, and also resulted in locking of fault with high pore pressure in core of fault zone. Contrast with that, rock-forming minerals altered to phyllosilicates in the gouges by fluid flow through degenerative reaction and hydrolysis reaction, which produced low friction fault and transformations to creep. The creep process progressively developed several wide shear zones including of R, Y, T, P shear plane that comprise gouge zones embedded into wide damage zones, which caused small earthquake distributed along wide fault zones with focal mechanism covered by normal fault, strike-slip fault and reverse fault. However, the stick-slip produced mirror-like slide surfaces with very narrow gouges along R shear plane and Y shear plane, which caused small earthquake distributed along narrow fault zones with single kind of focal mechanism.     

Earthquakes: Recurrence and Interoccurrence Times

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the statistical distributions of recurrence times of earthquakes. Recurrence times are the time intervals between successive earthquakes at a specified location on a specified fault. Although a number of statistical distributions have been proposed for recurrence times, we argue in favor of the Weibull distribution. The Weibull distribution is the only distribution that has a scale-invariant hazard function. We consider three sets of characteristic earthquakes on the San Andreas fault: (1) The Parkfield earthquakes, (2) the sequence of earthquakes identified by paleoseismic studies at the Wrightwood site, and (3) an example of a sequence of micro-repeating earthquakes at a site near San Juan Bautista. In each case we make a comparison with the applicable Weibull distribution. The number of earthquakes in each of these sequences is too small to make definitive conclusions. To overcome this difficulty we consider a sequence of earthquakes obtained from a one million year “Virtual California” simulation of San Andreas earthquakes. Very good agreement with a Weibull distribution is found. We also obtain recurrence statistics for two other model studies. The first is a modified forest-fire model and the second is a slider-block model. In both cases good agreements with Weibull distributions are obtained. Our conclusion is that the Weibull distribution is the preferred distribution for estimating the risk of future earthquakes on the San Andreas fault and elsewhere.