Five clinopyroxenes in the Hareidland eclogite,Western Norway

Five clinopyroxenes can be distinguished on petrographic and chemical grounds in the Hareidland eclogite. Of these, three are omphacites. It is suggested that all three were originally of the same composition and that their present chemical differences are due to differences in their immediate chemical environments during retrograde metamorphism of the eclogite. The other two clinopyroxenes are symplectitic, and chemically vary from sodic augite to jadeite-poor omphacite. They were formed by exsolution of a sodic component (sodic plagioclase) from a parental omphacite.Publication no. 49 in the Norwegian Geotraverse Project.     

Petrogenesis of the Lien peridotite and associated eclogites, Almklovdalen, Western Norway

Core and rim compositions of minerals in garnet-bearing assemblages in the Lien peridotite define a retrograde metamorphic trend from 820° C, 28.1 kbar, to 645° C, 17.6 kbar. Eclogites in Basal Gneiss near the peridotite contain a record of prograde metamorphism which converges with the retrograde trend of the ultramafic rocks. The Lien peridotite appears to have been derived from the upper mantle under eclogite facies conditions and emplaced into unusually thick continental crust during a Caledonian eclogite facies metamorphic event.     

The Bidjovagge copper-gold deposits of Western Finnmark,Norway

The Bidjovagge copper-gold deposits occur in the Svecokarelian Caskias Group. The rocks in the mineralized district consist of greenstones, carbonate rocks, albite felsite and graphite felsite. Four ore bodies are found in albite felsite and graphite felsite over a strike length of 2.5 km. The ore bodies represent remobilizations from syngenetic, stratabound mineralization. Ore minerals of economic significance are chalcopyrite and native gold. An assemblage of gold and tellurides in the country rock occurs as a late stage mobilization product.

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Zusammenfassung Das Bidjovagge Kupfer-Gold-Vorkommen liegt in der Svecokarelischen Caskias-Gruppe. Die Gesteine innerhalb des mineralisierten Distriktes bestehen aus Grünsteinen, Karbonatgesteinen, Albitfelsiten und Graphitfelsiten. Vier Erzkörper wurden innerhalb der Albitfelsite und Graphitfeisite über eine streichende Länge von 2,5 km gefunden. Die Erzkörper repräsentieren Remobilisate von syngenetischen, schichtgebundenen Mineralisierungen. Erzmineralien von wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung sind Kupferkies und Gold. Verwachsungen von Gold mit Telluriden findet man in den Nebengesteinen als Mobilisationsprodukte einer späteren Phase.

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Résumé Les gisements de cuivre et d'or de Bidjovagge se trouvent dans le groupe svécokarélidien de Caskias. Les roches de ce district minier consistent en roches vertes, roches carbonatées et felsites albitiques et graphitiques. Quatre gisements de minerai ont été trouvés dans les felsites albitiques et graphitiques sur une distance de 2,5 kilomètres. Ces gisements représentent des remobilisations d'une minéralisation syngénétique sédimentaire. La chalcopyrite et l'or sont les seuls minéraux d'importance économique. Des émissions d'or et de tellurures dans les épontes paraissent être le produit d'une phase de mobilisation tardive.

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On the occurrence of eclogite in Western Norway

Recent experimental data show that eclogites may form in the crust under conditions where total pressure exceeds water pressure. The regional distribution of eclogites in Western Norway and their association with crustal rocks makes their formation in the crust the most attractive hypothesis. Before a mantle origin should be assigned to any rock within this eclogite and garnet peridotite area it should be demonstrated that their country rocks are in a metamorphic state incompatible with the load pressures required for eclogite stability. Criteria for ascertaining eclogite formation in the crust are discussed.Publication no. 8 in the Norwegian geotraverse project.     

Glacier and climatic fluctuations inferred from tree-growth variations over the last 250 years, central southern Norway

A Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) tree-growth series from near the tree-line in upper Gud- brandsdalen, southern Norway (Slistad 1957) is analysed, and possible relationships to glacier and climatic fluctuations are explored. The series is smoothed by harmonic analysis, and calibrated using a variety of independently derived glaciological, geomorphological, and climatological data from Storbreen (Jotunheimen), the Storbreen gktschervorfeld, and Dombås meteorological station. The curves are then used to make inferences about the number, date, magnitude, and duration of glacier fluctuations and summer temperature fluctuations from 1700 A.D. to 1950 A.D. At least 10 major oscillations in the tree-growth data, reflecting fluctuations in summer temperatures of amplitude 1.0^°C to 3.0°C, are believed to be indicative of glacier fluctuations. Periods of reduced tree-growth are a response to cool phases and indicate glacier advances after a lag of about 4 years. These short-term oscillations are superimposed on a general trend of glacier retreat and a long-term warming of 1.0°C indicated by a glacier equilibrium-line displacement of 140 m to 145 m since 1750 A.D. Problems and prospects for development of dendroglaciological and dendro-climatological techniques are discussed.     

Younger Dryas end moraines between Hardangerfjorden and Sognefjorden, Western Norway

End moraines (called the Herdla Moraines) from the Younger Dryas Stadial arc morphologically mapped along the western coast of Norway, from Hardangerfjorden to north of Sognefjorden. The submarine position of the moraines are found by means of a conventional echo sounder. Stratigraphieal studies with many C¹⁴ datings are used for age determination, giving Late Younger Dryas (10,000–10,500 C¹⁴ years B.P.) for the Herdla Moraines. The moraines are correlated with the Ra-Salpausselkä Moraines. Isobases for the Younger Dryas are obtained from marine terraces formed contemporaneously with the moraines.     

汶川地震区东河口滑坡破坏机制FLAC模拟分析

以汶川地震触发的东河口滑坡为典型案例,根据野外调查结果建立震前地质模型,将实测的汶川地震波作为动力输入,采用FLAC有限差分法对该滑坡分别进行了静力稳定性分析及动力稳定性分析。计算结果表明:竖向峰值加速度导致了边坡的稳定性系数大幅降低,对边坡的破坏起着不可忽视的作用;另外,竖向峰值加速度引起了边坡后缘大面积的拉张破坏,这正是汶川地震引起西南山区产生大量崩滑甚至岩土体"抛掷"现象的一个重要因素。     

Deformation-enhanced metamorphic reactions and the rheology of high-pressure shear zones, Western Gneiss Region, Norway

Microstructural and petrological analysis of samples with increasing strain in high‐pressure (HP) shear zones from the Haram garnet corona gabbro give insights into the deformation mechanisms of minerals, rheological properties of the shear zone and the role of deformation in enhancing metamorphic reactions. Scanning electron microscopy with electron backscattering diffraction (SEM–EBSD), compositional mapping and petrographic analysis were used to evaluate the nature of deformation in both reactants and products associated with eclogitization. Plagioclase with a shape‐preferred orientation that occurs in the interior part of layers in the mylonitic sample deformed by intracrystalline glide on the (0 0 1)[1 0 0] slip system. In omphacite, crystallographic preferred orientations indicate slip on (1 0 0)[0 0 1] and (1 1 0)[0 0 1] during deformation. Fine‐grained garnet deformed by diffusion creep and grain‐boundary sliding. Ilmenite deformed by dislocation glide on the basal and, at higher strains, prism planes in the a direction. Relationships among the minerals present and petrological analysis indicate that deformation and metamorphism in the shear zones began at 500–650 °C and 0.5–1.4 GPa and continued during prograde metamorphism to ultra‐high‐pressure (UHP) conditions. Both products and reactants show evidence of syn‐ and post‐kinematic growth indicating that prograde reactions continued after strain was partitioned away. The restriction of post‐kinematic growth to narrow regions at the interface of garnet and plagioclase and preservation of earlier syn‐kinematic microstructures in older parts layers that were involved in reactions during deformation show that diffusion distances were significantly shortened when strain was partitioned away, demonstrating that deformation played an important role in enhancing metamorphic reactions. Two important consequences of deformation observed in these shear zones are: (i) the homogenization of chemical composition gradients occurred by mixing and grain‐boundary migration and (ii) composition changes in zoned metamorphic garnet by lengthening diffusion distances. The application of experimental flow laws to the main phases present in nearly monomineralic layers yield upper limits for stresses of 100–150 MPa and lower limits for strain rates of 10^?12 to 10^?13 s^?1 as deformation conditions for the shear zones in the Haram gabbro that were produced during subduction of the Baltica craton and resulted in the production of HP and UHP metamorphic rocks.     

The Holocene glacial history of Lyngshalvöya, northern Norway: chronology and climatic implications

Up to four nested Neoglacial moraines occur in front of glaciers on Lyngshalvöya. Lichenometric measurements at 21 glaciers demonstrate that these represent five episodes of glacier expansion, one of which predated the Little Ice Age. Lichenometric, dendrochronological and historical evidence indicates that the oldest Little Ice Age moraines date to the mid-18th century, and the youngest to A.D. 1910-30. At nine small glaciers the A.D. 1910-30 moraine represents the Neoglacial maximum; only larger glaciers were more extensive in the 18th century. It is inferred that conditions for glacier growth were less favourable in the 18th century than in A.D. 1880–1910 because of low winter snowfall. Comparison of the relative magnitude of 18th- and 20th-century advances on Lyngshalvöya with those of southern Norway suggests that the diminished winter precipitation was due to the southerly location of the North Atlantic oceanic polar front in the 18th century, which resulted in a reduction in winter cyclonic activity in northern Scandinavia but in an increase in snowfall farther south.     

Thermobarometric profile through the Caledonian nappe stack of Western Ofoten,North Norway

P-T estimates from pelite thermobarometry along a transect through the Caledonian nappe stack in Ofoten, north Norway (68° 30° N) plot as a trend in P-T space (ranging from 443° C, 6.9 kb, to 688° C, 10.6 kb). The P-T range for each nappe overlaps the others, except for those from the lowest unit (Narvik Group) which has significantly higher values. Within the P-T ranges for each nappe, the position on the trend of a given sample is independent of its tectonic position. Results support our earlier conclusion, based on structural and petrographic grounds, that the regional metamorphic peak was reached during or after stacking of the nappes in the Siluro-Devonian Scandian orogeny.The P-T trend closely resembles a trend reported from the Narvik Group in a nearby area which was interpreted to record varying amounts of retrograde reequilibration during uplift and cooling and thus define a portion of the area's cooling trajectory. However, evidence for an earlier, higher P-T event recorded only in the Narvik Group includes: 1) the Narvik Group gives the only P-T values exceeding 630° C, 9kb; 2) it preserves the only evidence suggesting polymetamorphism; and 3) it underlies an unconformity which has been interpreted on regional grounds to record the Cambro-Ordovician Finnmarkian orogeny. Therefore, the Narvik Group P-T trend probably does not quantitatively constrain the cooling history during uplift but reflects superposition of metamorphism in the Finnmarkian and Scandian orogenies. A Monte Carlo analysis of error propagation applied to the thermobarometric calculations indicates that the trend at least partly resulted due to an artifact of errors introduced by analytical uncertainties in the microprobe analyses.     

Comparative studies of glacier mass balance and their climatic implications in Svalbard, Northern Scandinavia, and Southern Norway

On the basis of the data of glacier mass balance during 1946?C2005 over Svalbard, Northern Scandinavia, and Southern Norway, the characteristics of glacier mass-balance are analyzed, and its sensitivity to climate change is calculated using a simple degree-day model. The mass balance of glaciers in these three regions reached maximum or comparatively high values in the late 1980s or the early 1990s. After that there was an accelerating negative tendency. A glacier with more positive mass balance has a higher sensitivity to equilibrium-line altitude (or climate) change and vice versa. On average, the mass loss during the entire period in these three regions was equivalent to the result of an air temperature rise of 0.32°C relative to zero net balance state. The highest temperature increase is found in Svalbard, and is 0.55°C; however, a rise of only 0.12°C is found in Southern Norway. The net balance sensitivity to a hypothetical air temperature increase of +1°C ranges from ?0.31 to ?1.03?m?w.e.?a^?1, and the net balance sensitivity to an assumed increase in snow precipitation of +10% varies from +0.05 to +0.37?m?w.e.?a^?1; thus, a 31% increase in snow precipitation is needed to compensate for the net mass loss induced by an air temperature increase of +1°C. The summer balance sensitivity to a hypothetical air temperature increase of +1°C varies from ?0.39 to ?0.95?m?w.e.?a^?1, and the winter balance sensitivity to an assumed increase in snow precipitation of +10% ranges from +0.02 to +0.38?m?w.e.?a^?1. This study confirms early findings that maritime glaciers have comparatively higher mass balance sensitivity than continental glaciers.     

高速岩质滑坡启动弹冲加速机制及弹冲速度计算——以武隆县鸡尾山滑坡为例

高速岩质滑坡启动弹冲加速机制是开展高速岩质滑坡全过程动力学研究的基础。系统阐述了高速岩质滑坡启动弹冲加速机制,着重分析了岩质滑坡启程中的滑带释能和锁固体释能加速效应。基于岩石循环加、卸载试验,探讨了岩石弹性应变能释放规律,并将得到的规律用于确定滑带可释放弹性应变能。鉴于目前确定滑坡启动弹冲速度所存在的诸多问题,重新推导了滑坡启动弹冲速度计算公式,并对鸡尾山滑坡启动弹冲规律进行了研究。研究表明,鸡尾山滑坡启动弹冲速度为1.261 1 m/s,滑体初始动能主要源于滑带弹性应变能的释放。最后通过一个滑坡概化模型计算得到了岩质滑坡启动弹冲的极限速度范围为2.6⁴.4 m/s。     

Metamorphic evolution of the Eiksunddal eclogite complex. Western Norway,and some tectonic implications

The metamorphic evolution of the Western Gneiss Region of Norway (WGR) can be evaluated from examination of eclogites formed as an integral part of the gneiss terrain (ie. in situ). Petrologic data from one of the larger country-rock eclogites within the northwestern part of WGR have been used to construct a P, T, t-path for this crustal volume. Textural relations as well as mineral composition and zonation suggest an early period of amphibolite facies conditions, followed by movement along a very steep positive P/T-gradient towards very high pressure (P25 kb) and moderate temperature (T600° C). Orthopyroxene coexisting with garnet at such conditions was poor in Al (<0.5 wt% Al₂O₃) and is preserved in the cores of orthopyroxene grains in garnet websterites. The increasing Al-content of orthopyroxene towards garnet, and increasing edenite substitution rimwards in zoned amphiboles, suggest a period of decompression accompanied by heating, towards the metamorphic maximum at T 750° C, P20kb. Garnet zoning reflects a general prograde history, but the reactions that control the zoning are insensitive to pressure changes. Jadeitic pyroxenes may have formed in the gneisses at P-max, but would revert to plagioclase subsequent to the metamorphic maximum, giving rise to the observed mineralogy. Further decompression and cooling continued towards high-rank amphibolite facies conditions. This P, T, t-path reflects crustal thickening to 80–90 km during Caledonian time. The uplift path is qualitatively similar to theoretically derived paths in which uplift is assumed to be controlled by erosion. However, uplift following the metamorphic maximum may have been accelerated by a period of suture progradation.     

Exhumation of high-pressure rocks beneath the Solund Basin, Western Gneiss Region of Norway

The Solund–Hyllestad–Lavik area affords an excellent opportunity to understand the ultrahigh‐pressure Scandian orogeny because it contains a near‐complete record of ophiolite emplacement, high‐pressure metamorphism and large‐scale extension. In this area, the Upper Allochthon was intruded by thec. 434 Ma Sogneskollen granodiorite and thrust eastward over the Middle/Lower Allochthon, probably in the Wenlockian. The Middle/Lower Allochthon was subducted to c. 50 km depth and the structurally lower Western Gneiss Complex was subducted to eclogite facies conditions at c. 80 km depth by c. 410–400 Ma. Within < 5–10 Myr, all these units were exhumed by the Nordfjord–Sogn detachment zone, producing shear strains > 100. Exhumation to upper crustal levels was complete by c. 403 Ma. The Solund fault produced the last few km of tectonic exhumation, bringing the near‐ultrahigh‐pressure rocks to within c. 3 km vertical distance from the low‐grade Solund Conglomerate.     

陕西山阳特大型滑坡视向滑移-溃屈破坏力学分析

陕西山阳滑坡为典型的陡倾层状斜向岩质斜坡,其破坏模式不同于常见的顺倾层状岩质斜坡溃屈破坏模式,也不同于斜倾层状山体的视向滑移-剪切破坏模式,更不同于陡倾顺层岩质斜坡的倾倒、倾倒-滑移破坏模式,属于视向滑移-溃屈破坏模式。在实地调查的基础上,从斜坡结构特征、结构面组合特征以及剪出口特征分析了滑坡的破坏模式,进而分析了山阳滑坡的视向滑移-溃屈破坏机制;以梁板理论、层状板裂结构岩体弯曲-溃屈破坏的力学模型为基础,结合斜倾层状岩质滑坡的视向滑动机制研究,建立了基于斜坡自重、地下水静水压力、侧向摩阻力以及斜坡岩体厚度变化作用下的陡倾层状斜向岩质斜坡视向滑移-溃屈破坏力学模型,进行力学分析,推导了溃屈段长度条件方程,并以山阳滑坡为例验证了长度条件方程的正确性。     

Geochemistry and petrology of glaucophane-bearing eclogites and associated rocks from Sunnfjord, Western Norway

Country-rock eclogites and amphibolites in the Sunnfjord area occur as pods, lenses and layers within gneisses of granitic to tonalitic composition. The contacts towards the enclosing gneisses are mostly tectonic, although apparent primary intrusive contacts occur. Geochemical data show that central parts of eclogitic bodies represent fairly undisturbed magmatic compositions, while the margins of such bodies show varying degrees of contamination. Exchange of components with the enclosing gneisses occurred at both a pre-eclogitic and a post-eclogitic stage. Petrographical and petrological data show that the eclogites developed from garnet amphibolites to eclogites during a prograde stage, and that a subsequent uplift/decompression period took place at fairly constant temperatures. The data presented here are compatible with an in situ model for the genesis of Norwegian country-rock eclogites.     

Raman confirmation of microdiamond in the Svartberget Fe‐Ti type garnet peridotite,Western Gneiss Region,Western Norway

Ultra‐high pressure metamorphic rocks have been found worldwide. The volume and areal extent of an exhumed UHPM domain are important for understanding the geodynamic mechanisms responsible for the high pressure and relatively medium temperature conditions needed for their creation. We report here Raman microspectroscopical data that prove the existence of microdiamonds at the Svartberget Fe‐Ti type peridotite locality in the Western Gneiss Region of Norway. Raman microscopy of two carbon microinclusions belonging to polyphase inclusion assemblages included in garnets from a garnet‐phlogopite websterite vein yielded a sharp, narrow, intense peak at 1332 cm^?1, characteristic of diamond. The diamond is associated with polyphase solid inclusions possibly originating from supercritical, dense, H‐C‐N‐O‐F‐P‐S‐Cl fluids. Lithological, textural and geochronological evidence points towards a Caledonian origin of the trapped fluid and subsequent diamond formation.     

Contemporary Tectonic Movements of the Western Caucasus and the Ciscaucasia Based on Satellite-Geodetic Observations

Geotectonics - The paper presents the velocity field of the Western Caucasus and Ciscaucasia based on GNSS observations. In the ITRF2014 reference frame, this field shows the coordinated movement...     

Mantle-equilibrated Orthopyroxene Eclogite Pods from the Basal Gneisses in the Selje District, Western Norway

‘Country-rock eclogite’ pods occur enclosed withtectonic contacts within heterogeneous amphibolite-facies gneissesin the Basal Gneiss Region of Western Norway. Sixty-nine newmicroprobe analyses for garnets, clino-and orthopyroxenes, olivine,clinoamphiboles, biotite and carbonates from a number of orthopyroxeneeclogite pods in the Selje District are presented. The firstfour minerals are primary whilst the others, of which the amphibolesare described in some detail, formed during a subsequent butstill early stage in eclogite history. The primary minerals have a wider range of compositions thanorthopyroxene eclogites from other geological environments;jadeite-rich clinopyroxene and unusually grossular-poor garnetsare described from this environment for the first time. Sidero-magnesiteoccurs in apparent equilibrium with primary eclogite minerals.The early amphiboles have apparently grown at the expense of,but nevertheless in equilibrium with, primary minerals throughreactions involving OH, K⁺, Na⁺, and possibly Mg-bearing fluids.Magnesio-cummingtonite intergrown with actinolite is recognizedas an early phase in one eclogite pod. The early amphibolescan be distinguished from the symplectitic amphiboles by thelower Al^lv, Al^vl, Ti and alkali contents and Fe/Fe + Mg ratiosand higher Si content of the former minerals. The symplectiticamphiboles form, together with plagioclase, during the stilllater amphibolitization of the eclogites. Fe/Mg distribution coefficients are affected by the Na contentsof clinopyroxenes and probably also by the Fe/Mg contents ofthe bulk assemblages. The former is due largely to increasingacmite content in jadeite-rich clinopyroxenes whilst the latteris tentatively attributed to lower closure temperatures of Fe-richassemblages. The Ca content in garnet is significantly relatedto both of these Na and Fe/Mg factors. Nevertheless a rangeof different distribution coefficients, including the Ca/Ca+ Mg ratio in coexisting pyroxenes, suggests a very limitedrange of temperatures of equilibration, the best estimate ofwhich is 700–850 °C. Pressures of equilibration are more difficult to assess. Onemodel, based upon the assumption of the stable occurrence ofamphiboles together with primary minerals and upon the minimumpressures necessary to transform a range of rock types to eclogite,suggests pressures of 15–28 kb at 700–850°C.A second model, based upon the Al₂O₃ content of primary orthopyroxeneand upon the association of sidero-magnesite with pyroxenes,suggests higher pressures (30–45 kb) over the same temperaturerange. Amphiboles are not stable under these conditions andare considered to form during a subsequent lower pressure (15–28kb) event when the low Al₂O₃ orthopyroxenes and sidero-magnesitesurvive metastably during an essentially isothermal history. One eclogite pod contains minerals with coarse exsolution lamellae:orthopyroxene exsolving garnet and clinopyroxene exsolving orthopyroxene.These imply high T-P processes, roughly estimated at 1200–1370°C, 30–40 kb, and hence suggest eclogite generationby igneous fractionation processes. Four T-P regimes (A, B, C, D) of mineral equilibration are recognizedin the history of the Selje district orthopyroxene eclogites,between their prior origin, presumably in the upper mantle,and their present surface exposure. This initial eclogite fractionation(regime A) occurred in an olivine-poor rather than olivine-richupper mantle environment, followed by cooling, exsolution, recrystallizationand re-equilibration (regime B) in a Precambrian tectonic environment.Subsequent history involved mineral reaction, metasomatism,and probably chemical redistribution through the medium of amphibole-formingfluids (regime C) and finally Caledonian tectonic transportinto poly-metamorphic continental basement where their survivalis thought to be due to a low activity of water. Marginal symplectiticamphibolitization (regime D), due to localized fluxing of metamorphicfluids, was the last significant petrological event prior touplift and exposure. The processes of tectonic transport aretentatively considered to represent deep level obduction processesrelated to continent/continent collision.     

Tectonics of the Scandian orogeny and the Western Gneiss Region in southern Norway

Two crust-forming events dominate the Precambrian history of the Western Gneiss Region (WGR) at about 1800–1600 Ma and 1550–1400 Ma. The influence of the Sveconorwegian orogeny (1200–900 Ma) is restricted to the region south of Moldefjord-Romsdalen. A series of anorthosites and related intrusives are present, possibly derived from the now-lost western margin of the Baltic craton that may have been emplaced in the WGR as an allochthonous unit before the Ordovician.The Caledonian development is split into two orogenic phases, the Finnmarkian (Cambrian — Early Ordovician) and the Scandian (Late Ordovician/Early Silurian — Devonian). The lower tectonic units west of the Trondheim Trough may be Finnmarkian nappes ; they were part of the lower plate during the Scandian continental collision. The Blåhö nappe is correlated with dismembered eclogite bodies along the coast. A regional change of nappe transport direction from 090 to 135 marks the initiation of an orogen-parallel sinistral shear component around 425 Ma. The change caused the development of a complex sinistral strike-slip system in the Trondheim region consisting of the Möre-Tröndelag Fault Zone and the Gränse contact. The latter cut the crust underneath the already emplaced Trondheim Nappe Complex, thus triggering the intrusion of the Fongen-Hyllingen igneous complex, and initiating subsidence of the Trondheim Trough, and was subsequently turned from a strike-slip zone into an extensional fault. Minor southward transport of the Trondheim Nappe Complex rejuvenated some thrusts between the Lower and the Middle Allochthon. A seismic reflector underneath the WGR is interpreted to be a blind thrust which subcrops into the Faltungsgraben. During Middle Devonian orogenic collapse, detachment faulting brought higher units, now eroded elsewhere, down to the present outcrop level, such as the Bergen and Dalsfjord nappe and the Old Red basins.