Atlantic Water flow through the Barents and Kara Seas

The pathway and transformation of water from the Norwegian Sea across the Barents Sea and through the St. Anna Trough are documented from hydrographic and current measurements of the 1990s. The transport through an array of moorings in the north-eastern Barents Sea was between 0.6 Sv in summer and 2.6 Sv in winter towards the Kara Sea and between zero and 0.3 Sv towards the Barents Sea with a record mean net flow of 1.5 Sv. The westward flow originates in the Fram Strait branch of Atlantic Water at the Eurasian continental slope, while the eastward flow constitutes the Barents Sea branch, continuing from the western Barents Sea opening.About 75% of the eastward flow was colder than 0°C. The flow was strongly sheared, with the highest velocities close to the bottom. A deep layer with almost constant temperature of about −0.5°C throughout the year formed about 50% of the flow to the Kara Sea. This water was a mixture between warm saline Atlantic Water and cold, brine-enriched water generated through freezing and convection in polynyas west of Novaya Zemlya, and possibly also at the Central Bank. Its salinity is lower than that of the Atlantic Water at its entrance to the Barents Sea, because the ice formation occurs in a low salinity surface layer. The released brine increases the salinity and density of the surface layer sufficiently for it to convect, but not necessarily above the salinity of the Atlantic Water. The freshwater west of Novaya Zemlya primarily stems from continental runoff and at the Central Bank probably from ice melt. The amount of fresh water compares to about 22% of the terrestrial freshwater supply to the western Barents Sea. The deep layer continues to the Kara Sea without further change and enters the Nansen Basin at or below the core depth of the warm, saline Fram Strait branch. Because it is colder than 0°C it will not be addressed as Atlantic Water in the Arctic Ocean.In earlier decades, the Atlantic Water advected from Fram Strait was colder by almost 2 K as compared to the 1990s, while the dense Barents Sea water was colder by up to 1 K only in a thin layer at the bottom and the salinity varied significantly. However, also with the resulting higher densities, deep Eurasian Basin water properties were met only in the 1970s. The very low salinities of the Great Salinity Anomaly in 1980 were not discovered in the outflow data. We conclude that the thermal variability of inflowing Atlantic water is damped in the Barents Sea, while the salinity variation is strongly modified through the freshwater conditions and ice growth in the convective area off Novaya Zemlya.     

Tectonostratigraphy and sedimentary architecture of rift basins, with reference to the northern North Sea

A tectonostratigraphic model for the evolution of rift basins has been built, involving three distinct stages of basin development separated by key unconformities or unconformity complexes. The architecture and signature of the sediment infill for each stage are discussed, with reference to the northern North Sea palaeorift system. The proto-rift stage describes the rift onset with either doming or flexural subsidence. In the case of early doming, a proto-rift unconformity separates this stage from the subsequent main rift stage. Active stretching and rotation of fault blocks during the rift stage is terminated by the development of the syn-rift unconformity. Where crustal separation is accomplished, a break-up unconformity commonly marks the boundary to the overlying thermal relaxation or post-rift stage. Tabular architectures, thickening across relatively steep faults, characterize the proto-rift stage. Syn-rift architectures are much more variable. Depending on the ability of the sediment supply to fill the waxing and waning accommodation created during rotation and subsidence, one-, two- or three-fold lithosome architectures are likely to develop. During the post-rift stage, an early phase with coarse clastic infilling of remnant rift topography often precedes late stage widening of the basin and filling with fine-grained sediments.     

莺歌海盆地新生代构造沉积演化及动力学机制分析

南海西北陆缘构造演化极其复杂,受到红河断裂、海南地幔柱和南海形成演化等多种因素的控制。莺歌海盆地位于南海西北部,发育了巨厚的新生代沉积物,详细记录了南海西北陆缘新生代的演化历史。但是莺歌海盆地新生代以来主要受到何种构造因素的控制目前还不太清楚。本文在莺歌海盆地较为均匀地选择了7口钻井和23口模拟井,通过空盆构造沉降方法重建了莺歌海盆地的构造沉降量、构造沉降速率和沉积速率,同时运用重力反演方法模拟了莺歌海盆地深部地壳结构,并结合前人研究成果进行了综合分析。结果发现莺歌海盆地在裂陷期（45～23 Ma BP）,盆地北部和中部沉降速率较大,南部沉降速率较小;在裂后期（23～0 Ma BP）, 盆地北部和中部沉降速率存在两期“台阶式”上升,分别为23～11.7 Ma BP和11.7 Ma BP至今,北部裂后期构造沉降速率最大可达80 m/Ma,中部最大可达110 m/Ma;南部地堑和隆起裂后期分别在11.7～5.7 Ma BP和15.9～11.7 Ma BP构造沉降速率最大可达70 m/Ma。莺歌海盆地新生代整体上表现为沉降速率与沉积速率变化基本一致,说明构造沉降对沉积速率具有显著的控制作用。重力反演发现莺歌海盆地可能存在下地壳高密度异常体,结合盆地沉积物内部钻遇玄武岩,我们推测下地壳高密度异常体为基性侵入体。通过与南海周边其他沉积盆地沉降速率对比发现,几乎所有盆地都在中中新世−晚中新世（15.9～11.7 Ma BP）发生了加速沉降事件,我们认为这可能跟南海海盆停止扩张导致大陆边缘次生地幔对流消失有关。莺歌海盆地5.7 Ma BP至今的加速沉降则可能与红河断裂右旋走滑活动有关。     

陆相断陷盆地沉积可容空间变化与油气汇聚体系关系探讨

陆相断陷盆地的沉积可容空间变化规律控制着盆地的层序地层充填样式和生储盖发育规律,根据目前我国陆相断陷盆地的层序地层响应特征,将沉积可容空间的变化频率分为低频和高频两种类型。油气汇聚体系是陆相断陷盆地油气勘探的研究对象,根据油气聚集规模将其划分为大型、中型和小型等三种规模类型。具备不同层序地层充填样式的陆相断陷盆地一般发育不同规模类型的油气汇聚体系和相应的空间展布规律：低频率沉积可容空间变化的陆相断陷盆地可以发育大型、中型规模的油气汇聚体系;高频率沉积可容空间变化的陆相断陷盆地一般发育中型或者小型规模的油气汇聚体系,大型规模的油气汇聚体系欠发育。我国陆区陆相断陷盆地中的东营凹陷是低频率沉积可容空间变化的典型代表,东濮凹陷是高频率沉积可容变化的典型代表;海区陆相断陷盆地中的涠西南凹陷属于低频率可容空间变化的类型,海中凹陷属于较高频率可容空间变化的类型。     

A GPS and Cold Ocean Brightness Temperature Calibration of the ERS-2 and TOPEX/Poseidon Microwave Radiometers

Sea-level change studies from altimetric satellites are reliant on range stability of the sea surface heights computed from orbital positioning and geophysically corrected data. One such correction, namely the wet tropospheric delay induced by the highly variable atmospheric water vapor content, is provided by radiometers onboard ERS-2 and TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P). In this study the long-term stability of the ERS-2 microwave radiometer (E2MR) and the T/P microwave radiometer (TMR) are investigated with the observed drift in the brightness temperatures approximated by reference to the coldest temperatures over the oceans. The E2MR stability is characterized by a gain anomaly fall in 1996 and a drift in the 23.8 GHz channel. For the TMR, investigations show that the dominant drift is about 0.2 K/year in the 18 GHz channel over the first 7-8 years but stabilizing and even decreasing slightly thereafter. In contrast, the 21 GHz and 37 GHz channels are comparatively stable. Utilizing correction formulae a modified wet tropospheric range is inferred from “small-change” analysis of the radiometric correction given on the altimetric Geophysical Data Records. The accuracy of this formulism is validated by independent comparison against GPS derived wet tropospheric delays inferred at 14 coastal IGS stations with near continuous data from September 1992 through to the present day. Comparisons between GPS results for ERS-2 and T/P show that the E2MR path delay is 14 mm short. For T/P, the spatial distribution of the wet tropospheric enhancement is further investigated to show that the nonuniformity can equate to a deviation in sea-level height change of about 0.1 mm/year compared with global average sea-level change. Finally, the altimetric range stability of T/P is revisited by comparison against time series from the global network of tide gauges. Analysis shows that the validated TMR drift correction results in a residual trend of -0.27 ± 0.11 mm/yr which is not significant at the 3σ level.     

Study on the distribution characteristics of faults and their control over petroliferous basins in the China seas and its adjacent areas

As one of the main controlling factors of oil and gas accumulation, faults are closely related to the distribution of oil and gas reservoirs. Studying how faults control petroliferous basins is particularly important. In this work, we investigated the plane positions of major faults in the China seas and its adjacent areas using the normalized vertical derivative of the total horizontal derivative (NVDR-THDR) of the Bouguer gravity anomaly, the fusion results of gravity and magnetic anomalies, and the residual Bouguer gravity anomaly. The apparent depths of major faults in the China seas and its adjacent areas were inverted using the Tilt-Euler method based on the Bouguer gravity anomaly. The results show that the strikes of the faults in the China seas and its adjacent areas are mainly NE and NW, followed by EW, and near-SN. Among them, the lengths of most ultra-crustal faults are in the range of 1 000–3 000 km, and their apparent depths lie between 10 km and 40 km. The lengths of crustal faults lie between 300 km and 1 000 km, and their apparent depths are between 0 km and 20 km. According to the plane positions and apparent depths of the faults, we put forward the concept of fault influence factor for the first time. Based on this factor, the key areas for oil and gas exploration were found as follows: the east of South North China Basin in the intracontinental rift basins; the southeast region of East China Sea Shelf Basin, the Taixinan and Qiongdongnan basins in the continental margin rift basins; Zhongjiannan Basin in the strike-slip pull-apart basins; the Liyue, Beikang, and the Nanweixi basins in the rifted continental basins. This work provides valuable insights into oil and gas exploration, mineral resource exploration, and deep geological structure research in the China seas and its adjacent areas.     

Evolution of structural and physical parameters of clays during experimental compaction

To provide a better understanding of sedimentary basin geological history, it is important to describe correctly the evolution of the various physical, mechanical and hydraulic properties of clayey rocks as a function of burial depth. As a contribution to this field, a programme of experimental studies on reworked clay samples compacted under various load pressures in oedometric conditions has been set up. The evolution of samples under compaction was followed with microscopic and macroscopic measurements. In a specially designed oedometric cell, samples are compacted under different total stresses from 0.1 to 50 MPa. In this cell, cylindrical cores are submitted to progressive loading from both ends under controlled pore pressure conditions. The symmetrical loading allows more even deformation about the midplane of the sample. This device allows the evolution of hydraulic pressure, radial stress, displacement and expelled pore fluid to be followed as a function of time. In a first step, kaolinite was chosen because it retains a high permeability (compared with other clays such as illite or smectite), which allows compaction tests to be performed within a few days. A complete set of measurements was performed after the tests. These measurements are: (1) micro-structures investigated by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), mercury porosimetry, water removal under low water vapour pressure, granulometry and specific area measured by ethylene glycol adsorption; and (2) various physical parameters measured including hydraulic conductivity and thermal conductivity. TEM gives an understanding of the arrangement of particles. It was found that each particle is composed of several crystal units, each unit formed by ≈25 individual kaolinite layers. During compaction, these particles remain undeformed, but are rotated. The angular distribution of grain orientation is a function of the applied effective stress. This reorientation is in agreement with the observed decrease in porosity and pore size. It also explains the occurrence of a strong anisotropy in the thermal conductivity and hydraulic permeability. The combination of these experimental results allows a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the behaviour of kaolinite with respect to parameters such as permeability, porosity, mechanical and thermal properties, the knowledge of which are necessary for basin modelling.     

黄海、渤海TOPEX/Poseidon高度计资料潮汐伴随同化

首先将大约10a的TOPEX/Poseidon(T/P)高度计资料沿星下轨迹点做潮汐调和分析,提取得到各分潮的调和常数,利用伴随同化方法,同化到二维非线性潮汐数值模式中,模拟了黄海、渤海区域M₂,S₂,O₁,K₁等4个潮汐分潮,并根据计算结果给出了各分潮的同潮图.将计算值与观测值的进行偏差统计,结果表明计算值与验潮站资料符合良好.研究过程中做了两类试验:一类试验是针对不同的参数进行优化,一类试验是针对不同的资料进行同化.第一类试验表明:将开边界条件和底摩擦系数同时作为模型优化的控制参数,其结果明显优于单独优化开边界条件;第二类试验表明:同时同化高度计资料与验潮站资料,比单独同化其中任一种资料,对模式计算结果都有较好的改进.研究结果表明,采用伴随同化方法,利用T/P高度计资料和验潮站资料作为同化数据能有效改进模拟结果,用来反演黄海、渤海的潮波系统是可行的.     

利用多代卫星测高数据计算海洋重力场

联合Jason-1/2、T/P、Envisat、ERS-1/2、Geosat等多代卫星测高数据计算中国近海及邻域（0°~42°N,100°~140°E）2′×2′重力异常。对卫星测高数据分别进行共线处理和自交叉点平差,并以T/P卫星测高数据为基准进行多星数据联合平差,有效削弱了卫星测高数据的时变影响和不协调性;利用逆Vening-Meinesz公式计算重力异常,与船测重力相比,均方根误差为5.4mGal。结果表明,通过引入高精度的卫星测高数据,结合多项平差处理手段,提高了海洋重力异常的计算精度。     

Role of Zooplankton in the Vertical Mass Flux in the Kara and Laptev Seas in Fall

The role of zooplankton in the vertical mass flux in the Kara and Laptev seas was studied during cruise 63 of the R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh in August–October 2015. Mass fluxes were estimated using sediment trap samples. The maximum values of the total vertical flux (19600 mg m^?2 day^?1) and particulate organic carbon (POC) flux (464 mg C m^?2 day^?1) were measured close to the Lena River Delta in the Laptev Sea. In the Kara Sea, the total flux (80–2700 mg m^?2 day^?1) and the POC flux (17–130 mg C m^?2 day^?1) were substantially higher than the estimates published earlier. The fecal pellet flux varied from 2 to 92 mg C m^?2 day^?1 and made up 4–190% of the total organic carbon flux. The mineral composition of fecal pellets largely mirrored that of suspended particulate matter. Clay minerals in the fecal pellets were more abundant than in particulate matter in the areas with noticeable freshwater impact. The flux of zooplankton carcasses varied from 0.1 to 66.4 mg C m^?2 day^?1 and made up 0.2–72% of total POC flux. The results are discussed in relation to the abundance and composition of zooplankton, the concentration and composition of suspended particulate matter, hydrophysical conditions, and methods of sample preparation for analysis.     

南海深水沉积过程之大洋钻探目标

多个航次的大洋钻探已经在南海成功实施,航次科学目标主要聚焦于古海洋、海盆形成过程以及岩石圈破裂过程等,钻遇了多种类型的深水沉积物,而且近些年来的物理海洋调查也已证实了其复杂的深水沉积动力环境,尤其是南海北部陆缘区海底地形地貌复杂,发育了深水水道、块体流等重力流沉积以及多种类型的等深流沉积。南海独特的构造环境和复杂底流活动所导致的不同深水沉积体系类型和丰富的沉积记录,使南海北部陆缘区成为研究深海沉积过程的最佳场所。通过对2—3个剖面多站位不同地形地貌条件下多类型深水沉积物的钻探对比分析,将有助于深刻理解重力流-底流相互作用特征,揭示块体流、浊流和底流形成和发育演化过程,查明岩石圈破裂和海底扩张的沉积响应等科学问题,丰富深水沉积动力学理论,深化对南海大陆边缘沉积格局演变和深层海流演变的整体性和全面性认识。     

南亚地区含油气盆地类型及资源潜力分析

南亚地区经历冈瓦纳陆内裂谷、冈瓦纳裂解与板块漂移及印度板块与欧亚板块的陆-陆碰撞复杂的构造演化,最终形成了以被动大陆边缘盆地为主的,包括克拉通盆地和俯冲-碰撞带盆地在内的3类沉积盆地,其中被动大陆边缘盆地分布广泛,形成了南亚地区的一个主要盆地群。本文通过对南亚盆地生、储、盖等石油地质条件分析,研究不同盆地类型的油气成藏特征。根据盆地的剩余可采储量和远景资源量对南亚地区的资源潜力进行分析,认为被动大陆边缘盆地油气资源潜力最大,并优选出奎师那-哥达瓦里盆地、孟买盆地和科弗里盆地3个有利盆地。     

An overview of the ecosystems of the Barents and Norwegian Seas and their response to climate variability

The principal features of the marine ecosystems in the Barents and Norwegian Seas and some of their responses to climate variations are described. The physical oceanography is dominated by the influx of warm, high-salinity Atlantic Waters from the south and cold, low-salinity waters from the Arctic. Seasonal ice forms in the Barents Sea with maximum coverage typically in March–April. The total mean annual primary production rates are similar in the Barents and Norwegian Seas (80–90 g C m⁻²), although in the Barents, the production is higher in the Atlantic than in the ice covered Arctic Waters. The zooplankton is dominated by Calanus species, C. finmarchicus in the Atlantic Waters of the Norwegian and Barents Seas, and C. glacialis in the Arctic Waters of the Barents Sea. The fish species in the Norwegian Sea are mostly pelagics such as herring (Clupea harengus) and blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou), while in the Barents Sea there are both pelagics (capelin (Mallotus villosus Müller), herring, and polar cod (Boreogadus saida Lepechin)) and demersals (cod (Gadus morhua L.) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus)). The latter two species spawn in the Norwegian Sea along the slope edge (haddock) or along the coast (cod) and drift into the Barents Sea. Marine mammals and seabirds, although comprising only a relatively small percentage of the biomass and production in the region, play an important role as consumers of zooplankton and small fish. While top-down control by predators certainly is significant within the two regions, there is also ample evidence of bottom-up control. Climate variability influences the distribution of several fish species, such as cod, herring and blue whiting, with northward shifts during extended warm periods and southward movements during cool periods. Climate-driven increases in primary and secondary production also lead to increased fish production through higher abundance and improved growth rates.     

白令海和楚科奇海表层沉积中的有孔虫及其沉积环境

通过对白令海和北冰洋楚科奇海39个表层沉积样品中有孔虫的定量分析,发现表层沉积中浮游有孔虫稀少可能与该区表层生产力低、碳酸盐溶解作用较强有关,而底栖有孔虫的分布则主要受表层初级生产力以及与水深相关的碳酸盐溶解作用和水团性质所控制,其中北冰洋楚科奇海陆架区有孔虫以Elphidium spp.组合和Nonionella robusta组合为主,丰度和分异度低,受北冰洋沿岸水团控制;白令海陆坡区有孔虫以Uvigerina peregrina-Globobulimina affinis组合为主,含N.robusta较多,丰度和分异度相对高,受太平洋中层和深层水团控制,但该区碳酸盐溶跃层和补偿深度(CCD)相对浅,约分别位于2000和3800m处.此外,白令海陆坡上部表层沉积中含有北冰洋陆坡区典型深水底栖有孔虫种Stetsonia arctica,说明白令海峡两侧的海区曾有深部水交流.     

Foraminifera in surface sediments of the Bering and Chukchi Seas and their sedimentary environment

Based on a quantitative analysis of foraminifera in 39 surface samples of the Bering andChukchi Seas, the nearly absence of planktonic foraminifera in the surface sediments can be related to the low surface primary productivity and strong carbonate dissolution in the study area. It has been revealed that the surface primary productivity, and carbonate dissolution and properties of water masses related to the water depth mainly control the distribution of benthic foraminifera. The shelf of the Chukchi Sea is dominated by the Elphidium spp. assemblage and Nonionella robusta assemblage with low foraminiferal abundance and diversity, which is controlled by the coastal water mass of the Arctic Ocean. The slope of the Bering Sea is dominated by the Uvigerina peregrina - Globobulimina affinis assemblage with abundant N. robusta, and relatively high foraminiferal abundance and diversity, which is controlled by the intermediate and deep water masses of the Pacific Ocean. However, the Bering Sea has relatively sha     

Evolution and petroleum geology of Amlia and Amukta intra-arc summit basins, Aleutian Ridge

Amlia and Amukta Basins are the largest of many intra-arc basins formed in late Cenozoic time along the crest of the Aleutian Arc. Both basins are grabens filled with 2–5 km of arc-derived sediment. A complex system of normal faults deformed the basinal strata. Although initial deposits of late Micocene age may be non-marine in origin, by early Pliocene time, most of the basinfill consisted of pelagic and hemipelagic debris and terrigenous turbidite deposits derived from wavebase and subaerial erosion of the arc's crestal areas. Late Cenozoic volcanism along the arc commenced during or shortly after initial subsidence and greatly contributed to active deposition in Amlia and Amukta Basins.Two groups of normal faults occur: major boundary faults common to both basins and ‘intra-basin’ faults that arise primarily from arc-parallel extension of the arc. The most significant boundary fault, Amlia-Amukta fault, is a south-dipping growth fault striking parallel to the trend of the arc. Displacement across this fault forms a large half-graben that is separated into the two depocentres of Amlia and Amukta Basins by the formation of a late Cenozoic volcanic centre, Seguam Island. Faults of the second group reflect regional deformation of the arc and offset the basement floor as well as the overlying basinal section. Intra-basin faults in Amlia Basin are predominantly aligned normal to the trend of the arc, thereby indicating arc-parallel extension. Those in Amukta basin are aligned in multiple orientations and probably indicate a more complex mechanism of faulting. Displacement across intra-basin faults is attributed to tectonic subsidence of the massif, aided by depositional loading within the basins. In addition, most intra-basin faults are listric and are associated with high growth rates.Although, the hydrocarbon potential of Amlia and Amukta Basins is difficult to assess based on existing data, regional considerations imply that an adequate thermal history conducive to hydrocarbon generation has prevailed during the past 6-5 my. The possibility for source rocks existing in the lower sections of the basins is suggested by exposures of middle and upper Miocene carbonaceous mudstone on nearby Atka Island and the implication that euxinic conditions may have prevailed during the initial formation of the basins. Large structures have evolved to trap migrating hydrocarbons, but questions remain concerning the preservation of primary porosity in a sedimentary section rich in reactive volcaniclastic debris.     

Influence of the Moho surface distribution on the oil and gas basins in China seas and adjacent areas

Owing to the strategic significance of national oil and gas resources, their exploration and production must be prioritized in China. Oil and gas resources are closely related to deep crustal structures, and Moho characteristics influence oil and gas distribution. Therefore, it is important to study the relationship between the variation of the Moho surface depth undulation and hydrocarbon basins for the future prediction of their locations. The Moho depth in the study area can be inverted using the Moho depth control information, the Moho gravity anomaly, and the variable density distribution calculated by the infinite plate. Based on these results, the influences of Moho characteristics on petroleum basins were studied. We found that the Moho surface depth undulation deviation and crustal thickness undulation deviation in the hydrocarbon-rich basins are large, and the horizontal gradient deviation of the Moho surface shows a positive linear relationship with oil and gas resources in the basin. The oil-bearing mechanism of the Moho basin is further discussed herein. The Moho uplift area and the slope zone correspond to the distribution of oil and gas fields. The tensile stress produced by the Moho uplift can form tensile fractures or cause tensile fractures on the surface, further developing into a fault or depression basin that receives deposits. The organic matter can become oil and natural gas under suitable chemical and structural conditions. Under the action of groundwater or other dynamic forces, oil and natural gas are gradually transported to the uplift or the buried hill in the depression zone, and oil and gas fields are formed under the condition of good caprock. The research results can provide new insights into the relationship between deep structures and oil and gas basins as well as assist in the strategic planning of oil and gas exploration activities.