Extracting water-related features using reflectance data and principal component analysis of Landsat images

This study aimed to map water features using a Landsat image rather than traditional land cover. We involved the original bands, spectral indices and principal components (PCs) of a principal component analysis (PCA) as input data, and performed random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM) classification with water, saturated soil and non-water categories. The aim was to compare the efficiency of the results based on various input data. Original bands provided 93% overall accuracy (OA) and bands 4–5–7 were the most informative in this analysis. Except for MNDWI (modified normalized differenced water index, with 98% OA), the performance of all water indices was between 60 and 70% (OA). The PCA-based approach conducted on the original bands resulted in the most accurate identification of all classes (with only 1% error in the case of water bodies). We therefore show that both water bodies and saturated soils can be identified successfully using this approach.     

Quantifying groundwater dependency of riparian surface hydrologic features using the exit gradient

Numerical groundwater flow models necessarily are limited to subsurface flow evaluation. It is of interest, however, to examine the possibility that, for unconfined aquifer systems, they could be used to proportionately measure the magnitude of seepage they estimate when these aquifers intersect the landscape surface. Our goal in this study was to determine the degree to which an unconfined groundwater model can estimate run‐off or seepage at the land surface during winter time wet season conditions, as well as in the dry season, when evapotranspiration is a major part of the water balance, using a lowland basin‐fill example study area in the Pacific Northwest. The exit gradient is a metric describing the potential for vertical seepage at the landscape surface. We investigated the spatial relationship of mapped surface features, such as wetlands, streams and ponds, to the model‐predicted mapped exit gradient. We found that areas mapped as wetlands had positive exit gradients. During the wet season, modelled exit gradients predicted seepage throughout extensive areas of the groundwater shed, extending far beyond mapped wetland areas (355% increase), associated with previously observed increases in nitrate‐nitrogen in streams in wet season. During the dry season, exit gradients spatially corresponded with wetland areas. The increase in in‐stream nitrogen corresponds with shorter residence times in carbon‐rich wetland zones because of the onset of saturation overland flow. We present results that suggest that the exit gradient could be a useful concept in examining the groundwater–surface water linkage that is often under represented physically in watershed flow models. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

Generation of continuous surface soil moisture dataset using combined optical and thermal infrared images

Surface soil moisture (SSM) is a critical variable for understanding water and energy flux between the atmosphere and the Earth's surface. An easy to apply algorithm for deriving SSM time series that primarily uses temporal parameters derived from simulated and in situ datasets has recently been reported. This algorithm must be assessed for different biophysical and atmospheric conditions by using actual geostationary satellite images. In this study, two currently available coarse‐scale SSM datasets (microwave and reanalysis product) and aggregated in situ SSM measurements were implemented to calibrate the time‐invariable coefficients of the SSM retrieval algorithm for conditions in which conventional observations are rare. These coefficients were subsequently used to obtain SSM time series directly from Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) images over the study area of a well‐organized soil moisture network named REMEDHUS in Spain. The results show a high degree of consistency between the estimated and actual SSM time series values when using the three SSM dataset‐calibrated time‐invariable coefficients to retrieve SSM, with coefficients of determination (R²) varying from 0.304 to 0.534 and root mean square errors ranging from 0.020 m³/m³ to 0.029 m³/m³. Further evaluation with different land use types results in acceptable debiased root mean square errors between 0.021 m³/m³ and 0.048 m³/m³ when comparing the estimated MSG pixel‐scale SSM with in situ measurements. These results indicate that the investigated method is practical for deriving time‐invariable coefficients when using publicly accessed coarse‐scale SSM datasets, which is beneficial for generating continuous SSM dataset at the MSG pixel scale.     

利用高分影像识别门源MS6.9地震地表破裂带

北京时间2022年1月8日,青海省门源县发生了M_S6.9地震,震中位于冷龙岭断裂西端与托莱山断裂过渡区。地震发生后,文章利用亚米级分辨率的高分7号卫星影像对本次地震产生的地震破裂带进行详细解译,并与野外调查结果进行对比,获得此次地震地表破裂带分布及组合特征。结果显示,此次地震形成两条破裂带,长度分别约21 km和5 km,分别沿冷龙岭断裂西段和托莱山断裂东段展布。地震破裂带由一系列雁列式地震裂缝、挤压鼓包及拉张凹陷组成,破裂带组合特征反映出发震断裂明显的左旋走滑特征,但利用影像并未识别出同震位错等定量数据。在此基础上,文章对比冷龙岭断裂东段存在的历史地震破裂带,讨论了冷龙岭断裂未来地震危险性问题。     

Multiple-point statistics using multi-resolution images

Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment - Multiple-point statistics (MPS) is a simulation technique allowing to generate images that reproduce the spatial features present in a...     

Geology and geochemistry of the mansion pyroclast fall succession,St. Kitts

Some 4000 years ago Mt. Misery volcano was in a particularly active state, emitting a sequence of pyroclastic deposit that are widely distributed over the island and show a compositional range from basalt (SiO₂ 48%) to andesite (SiO₂ 62%). The type section at Mansion, on the east coast, has been the subject of a study byBaker andHolland (1973). Of special interest in this succession is the intimate association of basic and relatively salic products. It constitutes a detailed record of a short period (a few centuries?) in the volcano’s history, which properly interpreted may tell us something of the processes of magmatic differentiation and replenishment. The compositional patterns may also provide some guide to the course likely to be followed in future eruptions. Some degree of caution is necessary in considering the chemistry of pyroclastic rocks, which between eruption and deposition may have been influenced by aerial fractionation or winnowing processes. There may also be problems of partial redistribution, weathering and also the inclusion of accessory or accidental lithic fragments. Isopach maps show that deposition of the Mansion succession was partly governed by the prevailing ENE wind. The total thickness varied from about 45 m at a distance of 4 km west of the crater compared with about half that thickness an equal distance east of the crater. The more complete sections occur on the eastern, windward side, whereas on the west much of the upper part has been removed, presumably by mudflows and floods. The marked unconformity over the basic cinder zone in western sections makes correlation with eastern sections more difficult. Sharp changes in composition and eruptive pattern tend to be heralded by particularly coarse horizons which usually contain fragments of coarse grained cumulates: these were presumably dislodged by the influx of new magma from depth. The coarsest horizon of all precedes the most basic phase in the middle of the sequence, when basalt flows were also discharged. It is not possible to identify individual basaltic horizons over any distance in the field but correlation does become possible when chemical profiles are integrated with stratigraphic data. It is generally sufficient to correlate by means of one elemente.g. Mg. The basaltic units are both thicker and coarser to the west of Mt. Misery. The most mafic beds have been found at Mansion in the east, probably because of the westward winnowing of the least dense fractions. Units of coarse greenish angular andesitic lapilli which occur near the top of the succession are the most amenable to wider correlation. There are three major units of these lapilli though often only one is exposed. Though indistinguishable in the field chemical analysis reveals that the middle unit is decidedly more basic and this becomes a useful criterion in correlation. It has been demonstrated that there are slight but significant variations in the chemistry of the upper unit over St. Kitts. Samples from the west are relatively enriched in SiO₂ (61.5%) compared with those to the east of the crater (59.0%). The pattern of variation can be matched closely to the isopachs, pointing to an influence of the wind on the ultimate composition of the deposits: presumably the less dense fractions were enhanced downwind. As a test of consistency, four samples were analysed from different heights in a single unit of andesitic lapilli but there was no significant difference. The results suggest that when conventional stratigraphic methods fail, chemical profiles may play a useful role. The pattern of variation in these profiles also suggests that basaltic andesites and perhaps some andesites are derived by fractional crystallization of basaltic magma. However, other andesites which break the pattern and appear suddenly in large volume may have a quite independent origin.     

Spatial interpolation of snow water equivalency using surface observations and remotely sensed images of snow‐covered area

As demand for water continues to escalate in the western Unites States, so does the need for accurate monitoring of the snowpack in mountainous areas. In this study, we describe a simple methodology for generating gridded‐estimates of snow water equivalency (SWE) using both surface observations of SWE and remotely sensed estimates of snow‐covered area (SCA). Multiple regression was used to quantify the relationship between physiographic variables (elevation, slope, aspect, clear‐sky solar radiation, etc.) and SWE as measured at a number of sites in a mountainous basin in south‐central Idaho (Big Wood River Basin). The elevation of the snowline, obtained from the SCA estimates, was used to constrain the predicted SWE values. The results from the analysis are encouraging and compare well to those found in previous studies, which often utilized more sophisticated spatial interpolation techniques. Cross‐validation results indicate that the spatial interpolation method produces accurate SWE estimates [mean R² = 0·82, mean mean absolute error (MAE) = 4·34 cm, mean root mean squared error (RMSE) = 5·29 cm]. The basin examined in this study is typical of many mid‐elevation mountainous basins throughout the western United States, in terms of the distribution of topographic variables, as well as the number and characteristics of sites at which the necessary ground data are available. Thus, there is high potential for this methodology to be successfully applied to other mountainous basins. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationship between size of pyroclast flow eruptions and duration of the preceding dormancy period

The techniques of simple correlation and simple linear regression were used to as certain whether there is a relationship between the length of the period of dormancy of a volcano and the maximum distance travelled by pyroclast flow in the subsequent eruption. A positive correlation coefficient of 0.48 was obtained for a data set of 35 eruptions in various parts of the world. This is significant at the 1% level. Correlation and regression were also performed on the cube root of the total volume of pyroclast flow material emitted and the length of the preceding dormancy period. The correlation coefficient of 0.42, for 20 eruptions, was significant at the 10% level. However, when only eruptions for which the dormancy period is less than 200 years are considered, neither the maximum distance travelled by the pyroclast flows, nor their total volume, has a statistically significant linear relationship with dormancy. This suggests that there may be a tendency for large eruptions from volcanoes, which have been apparently quiescent for centuries, to be reported, where as small eruptions from such volcanoes may go unremarked. Inclusion of such biassed data may give misleadingly high positive correlations between pyroclast flow size and dormancy.     

Interpretation of magnetic data using analytic signal derivatives

This paper develops an automatic method for interpretation of magnetic data using derivatives of the analytic signal. A linear equation is derived to provide source location parameters of a 2D magnetic body without a priori information about the nature of the source. Then using the source location parameters, the nature of the source can be ascertained. The method has been tested using theoretical simulations with random noise for two 2D magnetic models placed at different depths with respect to the observation height. In both cases, the method gave a good estimate for the location and shape of the sources. Good results were obtained on two field data sets.     

Interpretation of magnetic anomalies using a genetic algorithm

A genetic algorithm (GA) is an artificial intelligence method used for optimization. We applied a GA to the inversion of magnetic anomalies over a thick dike. Inversion of nonlinear geophysical problems using a GA has advantages because it does not require model gradients or well-defined initial model parameters. The evolution process consists of selection, crossover, and mutation genetic operators that look for the best fit to the observed data and a solution consisting of plausible compact sources. The efficiency of a GA on both synthetic and real magnetic anomalies of dikes by estimating model parameters, such as depth to the top of the dike (H), the half-width of the dike (B), the distance from the origin to the reference point (D), the dip of the thick dike (δ), and the susceptibility contrast (k), has been shown. For the synthetic anomaly case, it has been considered for both noise-free and noisy magnetic data. In the real case, the vertical magnetic anomaly from the Pima copper mine in Arizona, USA, and the vertical magnetic anomaly in the Bayburt–Sar?han skarn zone in northeastern Turkey have been inverted and interpreted. We compared the estimated parameters with the results of conventional inversion methods used in previous studies. We can conclude that the GA method used in this study is a useful tool for evaluating magnetic anomalies for dike models.     

Interpretation of charging on fracture or frictional slip surface of rocks

Fracturing and frictional sliding of quartz and granite under dry condition generates fractoluminescence, charged particle emission and electromagnetic radiation. Various kinds of experiments indicate that surface charge density on fracture or frictional slip surface of quartz and granite is 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻² C/m² which is larger than bound charges induced by the disappearance of piezoelectricity due to the release of stress. Hole and electron trapping centers, which is found in semiconductor devices with the Si–SiO₂ system, are causes of surface charging on fracture or frictional slip surface of quartz crystal. The quantity of the surface charge is enough to cause corona discharge that can generate earthquake lights. The mechanism considering the hole and electron trapping centers has a probability to explain why non-piezoelectric minerals or rocks generate electromagnetic phenomena. It can be one of origins of seismo-electromagnetic phenomena (SEP).     

遥感影像空间分辨率变化对湖泊水体提取精度的影响

湖泊面积是表征湖泊水情变化的重要指示因子,如何从不同空间分辨率遥感数据中获取客观准确的水面信息,是当前遥感应用研究中的难点问题.本文以鄱阳湖为例,通过选用丰水期和枯水期代表性Landsat ETM+遥感影像,采用最邻近法(NN)和像元聚合法(PA)两种重采样方法,分别获取分辨率逐渐降低的不同分辨率的影像数据,结合归一化差异水指数法研究水域面积随遥感影像分辨率降低的变化趋势及其误差变化特征,同时深入分析不同影响因素对水体提取精度的差异.研究结果表明:(1)空间分辨率是影响鄱阳湖水体提取精度的重要因素之一,随着遥感影像空间分辨率的降低,提取水域面积的精度相对30 m分辨率时呈逐渐降低的趋势,但整体精度较高,最低精度在67.64%以上;(2)NN重采样方法对遥感影像波段亮度值的均值影响不大,但PA重采样后影像的均值和标准差随分辨率逐渐降低且变化更有规律;(3)水体阈值在PA重采样后变化较大,NN重采样后变化较小,因而采用30 m分辨率时获取的阈值提取PA重采样后鄱阳湖水体误差较大,提取NN重采样后的湖泊水体误差较小.本研究结果对于全球变化影响下湖泊水体信息遥感精确提取具有重要的参考价值.     

A genetic algorithm for filter design to enhance features in seismic images

We present a novel method to enhance seismic data for manual and automatic interpretation. We use a genetic algorithm to optimize a kernel that, when convolved with the seismic image, appears to enhance the internal characteristics of salt bodies and the sub‐salt stratigraphy. The performance of the genetic algorithm was validated by the use of test images prior to its application on the seismic data. We present the evolution of the resulting kernel and its convolved image. This image was analysed by a seismic interpreter, highlighting possible advantages over the original one. The effects of the kernel were also subject to an automatic interpretation technique based on principal component analysis. Statistical comparison of these results with those from the original image, by means of the Mann‐Whitney U‐test, proved the convolved image to be more appropriate for automatic interpretation.     

Interpretation of magnetic anomalies of dikes using correlation factors

The magnetic anomaly due to a buried dike consists of the sum of two easily separated elementary functions. These functions, which have simple symmetry, are called even and odd functions. The correlation factors (r _0,1 for the even andr _0,2 for the odd function) between least-squares residual anomalies from even and odd functions are computed. Correlation values are used to determine the depth to the top and the half-width of the dike. The method also includes the determination of the index parameter and the amplitude coefficient. The validity of the method is tested against a theoretical and a field example where the parameters of the latter were determined by other investigators in comparing the results.     

Seasonal cycle of cloud cover analyzed using Meteosat images

A cloud-detection method was used to retrieve cloudy pixels from Meteosat images. High spatial resolution (one pixel), monthly averaged cloud-cover distribution was obtained for a 1-year period. The seasonal cycle of cloud amount was analyzed. Cloud parameters obtained include the total cloud amount and the percentage of occurrence of clouds at three altitudes. Hourly variations of cloud cover are also analyzed. Cloud properties determined are coherent with those obtained in previous studies.     

Numerical estimation of carbonate rock properties using multiscale images

Characterizing the pore space of rock samples using three‐dimensional (3D) X‐ray computed tomography images is a crucial step in digital rock physics. Indeed, the quality of the pore network extracted has a high impact on the prediction of rock properties such as porosity, permeability and elastic moduli. In carbonate rocks, it is usually very difficult to find a single image resolution which fully captures the sample pore network because of the heterogeneities existing at different scales. Hence, to overcome this limitation a multiscale analysis of the pore space may be needed. In this paper, we present a method to estimate porosity and elastic properties of clean carbonate (without clay content) samples from 3D X‐ray microtomography images at multiple resolutions. We perform a three‐phase segmentation to separate grains, pores and unresolved porous phase using 19 μm resolution images of each core plug. Then, we use images with higher resolution (between 0.3 and 2 μm) of microplugs extracted from the core plug samples. These subsets of images are assumed to be representative of the unresolved phase. We estimate the porosity and elastic properties of each sample by extrapolating the microplug properties to the whole unresolved phase. In addition, we compute the absolute permeability using the lattice Boltzmann method on the microplug images due to the low resolution of the core plug images. In order to validate the results of the numerical simulations, we compare our results with available laboratory measurements at the core plug scale. Porosity average simulations for the eight samples agree within 13%. Permeability numerical predictions provide realistic values in the range of experimental data but with a higher relative error. Finally, elastic moduli show the highest disagreements, with simulation error values exceeding 150% for three samples.     

基于机器学习的极光图像自动分割方法

极光是太阳风能量注入到极区的指示器,从观测视野中准确分割出极光区域对研究极光演变如亚暴过程有非常重要的意义.本文基于全卷积神经网络提出了一种弱监督极光图像自动分割策略,数据标记时仅需指定极光区域的一个像素点即可,极大解决了机器学习人工标注数据的压力.首先利用简单单弧状极光图像训练一个初始分割模型Model 1,然后基于该模型,结合热点状和复杂多弧状极光图像获得一个增强的分割模型Model 2,最后对分割结果做进一步优化.本文对2003-2007年北极黄河站越冬观测的2715幅极光图像进行了分割,并和最新论文结果及人工标签进行了定量和定性比较,其中分割结果与人工标签的"交并比"高达60%,证明了本文方法的有效性.     

Specific features of surface wave radiation by a shallow source

The uncertainty of the seismic moment tensor inversion from records of long period surface waves radiated by a shallow source is considered. The special cases of sources of pure thrust, normal, and strike-slip faults are examined in detail. Results of numerical modeling of Love and Rayleigh wave radiation patterns and frequency dependences of the radiation intensity are presented for these types of sources. It is shown that, in the general case, the focal mechanism and seismic moment of a shallow double couple can be uniquely determined from long period surface waves only if one of the nodal planes is subhorizontal. The threshold (maximum) value of the dip angle of this plane is determined by the source depth, the spectral range of observed surface waves, and the model structure in the vicinity of the source.