Modeling the Effects of Tidal Energy Extraction on Estuarine Hydrodynamics in a Stratified Estuary

A 3-D coastal ocean model with a tidal turbine module was used in this paper to study the effects of tidal energy extraction on temperature and salinity stratification and density-driven two-layer estuarine circulation. Numerical experiments with various turbine array configurations were carried out to investigate the changes in tidally averaged temperature, salinity, and velocity profiles in an idealized stratified estuary that connects to coastal water through a narrow tidal channel. The model was driven by tides, river inflow, and sea surface heat flux. To represent the realistic size of commercial tidal farms, model simulations were conducted based on a small percentage (less than 10 %) of the total number of turbines that would generate the maximum extractable energy in the system. Model results show that extraction of tidal in-stream energy will increase the vertical mixing and decrease the stratification in the estuary. Installation of in-stream tidal farm will cause a phase lag in tidal wave, which leads to large differences in tidal currents between baseline and tidal farm conditions. Extraction of tidal energy in an estuarine system has stronger impact on the tidally averaged salinity, temperature, and velocity in the surface layer than the bottom layer even though the turbine hub height is close to the bottom. Finally, model results also indicate that extraction of tidal energy weakens the two-layer estuarine circulation, especially during neap tides when tidal mixing is weakest and energy extraction is smallest.     

长江口潮位变化对潮型影响的研究

利用代表潮位站吴淞站19752010年实测资料,分析了长江口潮位变化对潮型的影响。研究结果表明,随着年平均潮位的上升,代表站年平均高（低）潮位会相应抬升,二者线性相关关系非常密切,而潮差、潮历时与年平均潮位的相关关系不明显。另外,年最高（低）高（低）潮位、年最大涨（落）潮潮差、年最大（小）涨（落）潮历时等各项极值与年平均潮位变化也没有明显的相关关系。     

长江口潮流速垂线分布规律研究

河道中流速沿垂线的分布规律是研究许多河床动力学问题的关键.长江口潮流河段涨、落潮流垂线流速分布有其特殊规律,因此根据长江口实测水流流速资料,分析流速垂线分布的规律性具有重要意义.本文通过对长江口的实例运用对数线性扩展分布模式计算分析,并与传统的对数分布模式进行比较,结果表明,对数线性扩展分布模式在各层数据上都与实测数据具有更好的相关性.     

Particulate Thiol Peptides Along a Salinity Gradient of a Metal-Contaminated Estuary

The thiol peptide phytochelatins (PC2; the polymer with n = 2) are efficient metal-chelating compounds produced by phytoplankton and higher plants. Both PC2 and their precursor glutathione (GSH) are related to detoxification mechanisms. GSH and PC2 were quantified using liquid chromatography with fluorescent detection and observed in the particulate phase along a salinity gradient of the Tamar Estuary (SW UK), a heavily metal impacted site, at concentrations up to 274 and 16.5 μmol (g chl a)⁻¹, respectively. The peptides predominated within low (0–5) and mid-salinities (5–20). Down-estuary, at sites farther from metal sources and salinities higher than 20, PC2 showed a sharp decrease or were not detected. High PC2/GSH ratios indicated areas with augmented concentrations of bioavailable metals at the tidal limit, near Cu mines and the mid-estuary where resuspension of sediments occurs. By following typical partitioning patterns previously reported for dissolved Cu and Zn, the production of thiol peptides, notably PC2, reflected a rapid interaction between the particulate and dissolved phases.     

Fortnightly Tidal Modulations Affect Net Community Production in a Mesotidal Estuary

Optical in situ chemical sensors enable sampling intervals and durations that rival acoustic techniques used for measuring currents. Coupling these high-frequency biogeochemical and physical measurements in estuaries to address ecosystem-scale questions, however, is still comparatively novel. This study investigated how tides affect ecosystem metabolism in a mesotidal estuary in central California (Elkhorn Slough). Dissolved oxygen measurements were used to estimate the terms in a control volume budget for a tidal creek/marsh complex at tidal timescales over several weeks. Respiration rates were 1.6 to 7.3 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1; net community production approached 20 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1. We found that aquatic NCP integrated throughout the creek complex varied significantly over the spring-neap cycle. The intertidal contribution to aquatic metabolism was net heterotrophic during spring tides and generally in balance during neap tides because spring-tide marsh inundation was limited to nighttime, and therefore the marsh could not contribute any primary production to the water column. At the estuary scale, the fortnightly export of oxygen from the main channel to the intertidal was largely balanced by an advective flux up-estuary.     

Tidal and Meteorological Forcing of Suspended Sediment Flux in a Muddy Mesotidal Estuary

Although the supply and fate of suspended sediment is of fundamental importance to the functioning and morphological evolution of muddy estuaries, reliable sediment budgets have been established in only a few cases. Especially for smaller estuaries, inadequate bathymetric surveys and a lack of intertidal sedimentation data often preclude estimation of the sediment budget from morphological change, while instrument-derived residual fluxes typically lie well within the errors associated with measurement of much larger gross tidal transports. Given suitably long-term records of continuously monitored suspended sediment concentration (SSC), however, analysis of the major scales of variation in sediment transport and their relation to hydrodynamic and meteorological forcing permits qualitative testing of hypotheses suggested by directly measured residual fluxes. This paper analyzes data from a 1-year acoustic Doppler profiler deployment in the Blyth estuary, a muddy mesotidal barrier-enclosed system on the UK east coast. Flux calculations indicate a small sediment import equivalent to just 1.5% of the gross flood tide transport. Little confidence can be assigned to either the magnitude or direction of such a small residual when considered in isolation. However, the inference that the sediment regime is finely balanced is qualitatively supported by the close similarity between flood-tide and ebb-tide SSC values. Singular spectrum analysis of the SSC time series shows the expectedly large contributions to the variance in SSC at intratidal and subtidal (semimonthly and monthly) scales but also picks out intermittent variability that is initially attributed to a combination of non-tidal surge and wind stress forcing. Closer examination of the data through cross-correlograms and event-scale analysis indicates that local meteorological forcing is the major factor. Acting through the resuspension of intertidal mudflat sediments at times of strong westerlies, meteorological forcing is directly implicated in episodic sediment export from the estuary. Thresholding of tide-averaged fluxes using a range of critical wind stress values further indicates that ‘tide-dominated’ (i.e., low wind stress) and ‘wave-dominated’ (high wind stress) conditions are associated with sediment import and export. Sediment balance is potentially sensitive to the frequency of high wind stress events, since the associated sediment exports are several times larger than the average import under calm conditions. Intermittent meteorological forcing may thus exert an important control on the sedimentary balance of otherwise tidally dominated muddy estuarine systems, and the role of wind climate should not be overlooked in studies of estuary response to environmental change.     

Fortnightly Changes in Water Transport Direction Across the Mouth of a Narrow Estuary

This research investigates the dynamics of the axial tidal flow and residual circulation at the lower Guadiana Estuary, south Portugal, a narrow mesotidal estuary with low freshwater inputs. Current data were collected near the deepest part of the channel for 21 months and across the channel during two (spring and neap) tidal cycles. Results indicate that at the deep channel, depth-averaged currents are stronger and longer during the ebb at spring and during the flood at neap, resulting in opposite water transport directions at a fortnightly time scale. The net water transport across the entire channel is up-estuary at spring and down-estuary at neap, i.e., opposite to the one at the deep channel. At spring tide, when the estuary is considered to be well mixed, the observed pattern of circulation (outflow in the deep channel, inflow over the shoals) results from the combination of the Stokes transport and compensating return flow, which varies laterally with the bathymetry. At neap tide (in particular for those of lowest amplitude each month), inflows at the deep channel are consistently associated with the development of gravitational circulation. Comparisons with previous studies suggest that the baroclinic pressure gradient (rather than internal tidal asymmetries) is the main driver of the residual water transport. Our observations also indicate that the flushing out of the water accumulated up-estuary (at spring) may also produce strong unidirectional barotropic outflow across the entire channel around neap tide.     

A Subtidal Model of Temperature for a Well-Mixed Narrow Estuary: the Guadalquivir River Estuary (SW Spain)

This paper analyzes thermal energy transport in the narrow and tidally energetic Guadalquivir River Estuary (SW Spain). Measurements from a comprehensive monitoring campaign (2008–2011) reveal the forcing factors of the temperature field and its spatio-temporal variability. The along-channel thermal energy gradient reaches magnitudes of ～375 J/m⁴ near the mouth during the summer and winter. The water temperature is primarily controlled by shortwave radiation, latent heat transfer through the free surface, and tidal advection, whereas it depends less on freshwater discharge and longitudinal dispersion. The tidally averaged effective longitudinal thermal dispersion coefficient was evaluated at several stretches for each tidal cycle. The mean values of the coefficient tend to increase landward and are on the order of ～10³, larger than (but of the same order of magnitude as) the salinity coefficient values. Based on these analyses, a deterministic operational model for thermal energy transport was developed. The model solves the tidally and cross-sectionally averaged advection–dispersion equation for the thermal energy balance and obtains accurate fits of the subtidal temperature field at any location within the estuary. The modeled water temperatures agreed well with the observations at all the stations (coefficients of determination, R ² greater than 0.98), even after the seasonal oscillation in radiation was removed (R ²?>?0.77).     

长江口可能最高潮位研究

以长江口高桥站为研究对象,根据历史资料,用经验分析和统计结合起来的方法,建立风暴潮增水模式,依据流体动力学原理建立二维风暴潮天文潮综合水位模式,尔后以极值气象因子为基础,利用因子组合法及台风位移法分别设计极端台风模型,推算高桥站最大增水及可能最高潮位,并以水文统计频率分析成果作为研究确定长江口ＰＭＴ的佐证。     

Effects of Tidal Flooding on Juvenile Willows

Tidal wetlands are affected by sea level rise. In the tidal freshwater stretches of estuaries in the temperate zone, willows (Salix spp.) form tidal freshwater forests above the mean high water level. Willows tolerance to prolonged periodic flooding in riverine systems is well documented, whereas effects of tidal flooding on willows are largely unknown. Flooding stress may play a major role in regeneration failure of willows in tidal forest stands along estuarine shores, and juvenile willows might be specifically affected by partial or total submergence. To assess the tolerance of juvenile willows to tidal flooding, we conducted a mesocosm experiment with cuttings from Salix alba and Salix viminalis, which are both characteristic species for tidal freshwater forests in Europe. Cuttings originating from either fresh or brackish tidal forest stands were grown under four tidal treatments with up to a tidal flooding of 60 cm. A general tolerance to a tidal flooding of 60 cm was observed in chlorophyll fluorescence, growth rates, and biomass production in both willow species. Overall, S. alba showed higher leaf and shoot growth, whereas S. viminalis produced more biomass. S. alba with brackish origin performed worst with increasing tidal flooding, suggesting a possible pre-weakening due to stressful site conditions in tidal wetlands at the estuarine brackish stretch. This study demonstrates that juvenile willows of S. alba and S. viminalis tolerate tidal flooding of up to 60 cm. It is concluded that tidal inundation acts as a stress by causing submergence and soil anaerobiosis, but may also act as a subsidy by reestablishing aerobic conditions and thus maintaining willows performance. Therefore, we suggest investigations on Salix tidal flooding tolerance and possible effects of willows on tidal wetland accretion under estuarine field conditions.     

潮汐河口水库中水力充填堤坝结构的渗控关键技术研究

随着近些年水力充填堤坝结构在潮汐河口水库中的应用和发展,渗流控制技术也随之不断完善。本文以上海青草沙水库工程中的北堤工程为例,论述了水力充填堤坝应用在潮汐河口水库中,其渗流控制技术研究分析过程,为类似工程的设计和研究提供了经验和参考。     

Response of Tidal Creek Fish Communities to Dredging and Coastal Development Pressures in a Shallow-Water Estuary

To investigate the effects of dredging and associated development pressures (i.e., shoreline armoring, developed land use) on fish, three sets of paired dredged and undredged tidal creeks were surveyed within Lynnhaven River, Virginia. Fish species diversity, community abundance, biomass, and size structure were compared among creeks and related to watershed, shoreline, and physicochemical characteristics. Mean fish community characteristics (e.g., abundance) were similar among creeks; however, species-specific analysis revealed subtle differences. Species biomass differed between dredged and undredged creeks, though species abundance was similar. Turbidity highly influenced differences in species abundance among creeks, while organic matter, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and shoreline hardening may be influencing biomass patterns. The most recently dredged creek appeared to provide less suitable nursery habitat for some species than historically dredged creeks, suggesting initial adverse effects with eventual recovery. Protective measures, such as preservation of marshes, dredge depth, and time-of-year restrictions, may be moderating development and dredging pressures.     

长江口潮流摩阻流速和粗糙长度计算方法探讨

在研究河口区域水流垂线流速分布规律时,摩阻流速和粗糙长度是描述水流摩阻特性的两个重要的物理量,并在物理内涵上反映了水流的摩阻特性.本文通过对5种计算摩阻流速u*及粗糙长度Z0的方法分析研究,选择卡曼-普朗特方法和对数抛物方法作为本文计算摩阻流速和粗糙长度的方法.通过对长江口海螺码头水域和王子码头水域的实测资料计算,并对计算所得到的u*和Z0进行一致性和相关性分析,以及对各层实测流速与计算流速过程线的比较,得到对数抛物方法是计算长江口潮流的u*和Z0最佳方法的结论.     

长江口九段沙现代潮滩沉积特征

根据2003年对长江河口九段沙潮间带和潮上带的现场调查和室内对沉积构造、粒度分布、矿物组成、沉积速率等的分析,对九段沙现代潮滩的沉积特征进行了研究。研究表明九段沙潮间带以小型交错层理为主,波痕发育,粒度主要为细砂至粗粉砂;潮上带主要为水平层理,粒度主要为中细粉砂。潮间带和潮上带的沉积矿物组成非常接近。沉积速率以潮间带低而潮上带高为特点。     

Mercury Dynamics in a San Francisco Estuary Tidal Wetland: Assessing Dynamics Using In Situ Measurements

We used high-resolution in situ measurements of turbidity and fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) to quantitatively estimate the tidally driven exchange of mercury (Hg) between the waters of the San Francisco estuary and Browns Island, a tidal wetland. Turbidity and FDOM??representative of particle-associated and filter-passing Hg, respectively??together predicted 94?% of the observed variability in measured total mercury concentration in unfiltered water samples (UTHg) collected during a single tidal cycle in spring, fall, and winter, 2005?C2006. Continuous in situ turbidity and FDOM data spanning at least a full spring-neap period were used to generate UTHg concentration time series using this relationship, and then combined with water discharge measurements to calculate Hg fluxes in each season. Wetlands are generally considered to be sinks for sediment and associated mercury. However, during the three periods of monitoring, Browns Island wetland did not appreciably accumulate Hg. Instead, gradual tidally driven export of UTHg from the wetland offset the large episodic on-island fluxes associated with high wind events. Exports were highest during large spring tides, when ebbing waters relatively enriched in FDOM, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and filter-passing mercury drained from the marsh into the open waters of the estuary. On-island flux of UTHg, which was largely particle-associated, was highest during strong winds coincident with flood tides. Our results demonstrate that processes driving UTHg fluxes in tidal wetlands encompass both the dissolved and particulate phases and multiple timescales, necessitating longer term monitoring to adequately quantify fluxes.     

Suspended-Sediment Flux and Retention in a Backwater Tidal Slough Complex near the Landward Boundary of an Estuary

Backwater tidal sloughs are commonly found at the landward boundary of estuaries. The Cache Slough complex is a backwater tidal region within the Upper Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta that includes two features that are relevant for resource managers: (1) relatively high abundance of the endangered fish, delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus), which prefers turbid water and (2) a recently flooded shallow island, Liberty Island, that is a prototype for habitat restoration. We characterized the turbidity around Liberty Island by measuring suspended-sediment flux at four locations from July 2008 through December 2010. An estuarine turbidity maximum in the backwater Cache Slough complex is created by tidal asymmetry, a limited tidal excursion, and wind-wave resuspension. During the study, there was a net export of sediment, though sediment accumulates within the region from landward tidal transport during the dry season. Sediment is continually resuspended by both wind waves and flood tide currents. The suspended-sediment mass oscillates within the region until winter freshwater flow pulses flush it seaward. The hydrodynamic characteristics within the backwater region such as low freshwater flow during the dry season, flood tide dominance, and a limited tidal excursion favor sediment retention.     

三峡工程蓄水前后长江河口段潮汐特征变化分析

三峡工程蓄水后,长江流域的来水来沙特性发生了一定程度的变化,从而可能使长江河口段的潮汐特征发生变化。以分布于长江河口段6个潮位站的各6个代表年的实测潮位资料为基础,利用潮汐调和分析方法,对比分析长江河口段的潮汐特征。结果表明:三峡工程蓄水后,长江河口段的主要分潮的调和常数和潮汐特征参数发生了变化,但幅度比较小。     

Groundwater,Acid and Carbon Dioxide Dynamics Along a Coastal Wetland,Lake and Estuary Continuum

Coastal wetlands are hotspots for biodiversity and biological productivity, yet the hydrology and carbon cycling within these systems remains poorly understood due to their complex nature. By using a novel spatiotemporal approach, this study quantified groundwater discharge and the related inputs of acidity and CO₂ along a continuum of a modified coastal acid sulphate soil (CASS) wetland, a coastal lake and an estuary under highly contrasting hydrological conditions. To increase the resolution of spatiotemporal data and advance upon previous methodologies, we relied on automated observations from four simultaneous time-series stations to develop multiple radon mass balance models to estimate groundwater discharge and related groundwater inputs of acidity and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), along with surface water to atmosphere CO₂ fluxes. Spatial surveys indicated distinct acid hotspots with minimum surface water pH of 2.91 (dry conditions) and 2.67 (flood conditions) near a non-remediated (drained) CASS area. Under flood conditions, groundwater discharge accounted for ～14.5 % of surface water entering the lake. During the same period, acid discharge from the acid sulphate soil section of the continuum produced ～4.8 kg H₂SO₄?ha^?1 day^?1, a rate much higher than previous studies in similar systems. During baseflow conditions, the low pH water was rapidly buffered within the estuarine lake, with the pH increasing from 4.22 to 6.07 over a distance of ～250 m. The CO₂ evasion rates within the CASS were extremely high, averaging 2163?±?125 mmol m^?2 day^?1 in the dry period and 4061?±?259 mmol m^?2 day^?1 under flood conditions. Groundwater input of DIC could only account for 0.4 % of this evasion in the dry conditions and ～5 % during the flood conditions. We demonstrated that by utilising a spatiotemporal (multiple time-series stations) approach, the study was able to isolate distinct zones of differing hydrology and biogeochemistry, whilst providing more reasonable groundwater acid input estimates and air–water CO₂ flux estimates than some traditional sampling designs. This study highlights the notion that modified CASS wetlands can release large amounts of CO₂ to the atmosphere because of high groundwater acid inputs and extremely low surface water pH.     

辽河口海口沉积特征及潮滩动态预测

本文以翔实的调查资料较详细的叙述了辽河口浅海区的沉积特征,分别总结了潮滩、浅海、潮道及潮沟等单元体的沉积特征,并分析了各单元体的沉积过程,文章重点叙述了潮滩的动态变化,并根据210Pb测定沉积速率资料及河流输沙量观测资料,分别建立预测方程,估算了双台河口东、西两段潮滩的极限淤涨时间及潮滩淤涨高度预测,两种计算方法所获得的结果基本上一致。     

长江口崇明岛滩地重金属元素分布探讨

该文通过对长江口崇明岛滩地柱状样进行^210Pb和^137Cs以及11个重金属元素的测试，以探讨重金属元素在河口滩地中的沉积与迁移过程，剖析其分布规律，从而为崇明岛滩涂资源的合理规划、利用提供科学依据。研究发现70年代以来的沉积物中重金属元素含量普遍高于70年代以前。在空间上，堡镇附近重金属元素含量比崇明岛其它地方明显要高，在岛上的另一个主要城镇城桥附近，重金属元素没有显示高值，反映重金属含量与径、潮流的淘洗作用有关。