A Loading Correlation Model for Climatic Classification in Terms of Synoptic Climatology

Summary By using the orthogonal transformations between principal components and original variates, a loading correlation model is proposed as a technique for climatic classification derived from synoptic climatology. The criterion for a loading correlation model for a climate region is that all the first loading correlations are positive and significant. The climate region includes all the stations chosen in the model. The first positive significant loading correlations and other significant ones in the model, fitted to the climate region, can be identified as the average circulation type and the average circulation features, respectively, by using the decomposition of the original variates. Thus, the regional climate can be described in terms of synoptic climatology. The mathematical structure of the loading correlation model is based on empirical orthogonal functions with two additional parameters, the standard deviation of the principal components and the original variates. Received July 8, 1996 Revised November 10, 1997     

Synoptic patterns associated with landslide events in the Serra do Mar, Brazil

Heavy rains frequently occur over the Serra do Mar, in the southeast coastal mountain region in Brazil, particularly during the summer season. These rains can cause landslides and loss of life. The objective of this work is to produce a synoptic climatology of heavy rainfall episodes of the period from November to April using 10-year reanalyses data. The identification of the synoptic pattern of these events should provide guidance to forecasters. The landslide events were mostly related to cold front passages and the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ). These systems differed from the climatology by exhibiting more intense characteristics for the frontal situations and a blocking circulation configuration for the SACZ situations. In both cases, the composite fields showed that the 250-hPa mass divergence was strikingly more intense than the climatology and had a preferred location in the 24 h prior to landslide events. Anomalies of this ten-year event climatology showed above-normal moisture anomalies, which are more evident in the SACZ than in the frontal cases.     

Main types of synoptic processes and circulation types generating heavy precipitation events in Armenia

The results of synoptic analysis and objective Lamb circulation classification scheme (LAMB) during the days with heavy precipitation events in Armenia are presented. An analysis of synoptic situations in the area of Armenia and Southern Caucasus for the researched period 2001–2009 has shown that there are seven types of synoptic process characteristic of days with heavy precipitation events in Armenia. Adoption of the LAMB made it possible to identify the typical circulation types for each type of the synoptic process singled out. The results suggest that the LAMB is able to recognize the typical pattern of the distribution of sea level pressure field for each type of the synoptic processes. However, the use of the LAMB is further complicated in Southern Caucasus which can be explained by the existence of regional peculiarities of atmospheric circulation associated with significant influence of the Caucasian ridge. The LAMB may be recommended as an extra tool for synoptic analysis as well as for developing of synoptic climatology and statistical downscaling methods for Armenia and Southern Caucasus.     

江淮梅雨期强降水和大气不同时间尺度波动的关系

中国的江淮梅雨具有多时间尺度特征,利用1979-2017年欧洲中期预报中心逐日再分析资料(ERA-interim)和台站逐日降水观测数据,采用滤波和合成分析等统计方法,分析了江淮梅雨期间不同时间尺度强降雨过程的特征,对比研究了不同时间尺度强降水对应的大气环流系统波动的演变特征.研究表明江淮梅雨降水集中期开始前1～9天和...     

冬季中高纬地区阻塞高压活动及其气候影响

利用1958—1996年NCEP再分析500 hPa逐日高度场资料,根据阻塞高压定义的客观标准,对亚欧地区中高纬度冬季的阻塞高压进行了统计,并进行了气候学分析。结果表明,北半球冬季阻塞高压活动有很强的年际变化,而且存在明显的地理差异。在此基础上,本文还根据阻塞高压天气学指数,建立了阻塞高压的气候学指数,并用该阻塞高压气候学指数与温度、降水两个气候要素场进行了相关统计。     

A climatology of Southern Hemisphere anticyclones

A climatology of anticyclones generated by an objective automatic scheme applied to 15 years of once-daily Australian Bureau of Meteorology hemispheric analyses is presented. Contour maps of the anticyclone system density, positions of formation and dissipation together with other statistics are shown. The distribution of anticyclones through the hemisphere was found to be dominated by a mid latitude belt of high density, located in the band 25–42°S, typically 24° south of the time-mean subtropical ridge. Within this band the anticyclone density displays considerable structure with greater system numbers over the eastern parts of the three subtropical ocean basins in the vicinity of the three subtropical ocean time-mean anticyclones. During winter the system density displays a bifurcation in the New Zealand sector, with the highest density along the 30 and 45°S latitude bands. The movement of systems in the subtropical ocean basins was found to be in a general easterly direction with a weak equatorwards component, the transport of systems closely following the orientation of the belt of highest system density. In the vicinity of the African and South American continents, movement was more complex with east-south-east motion upstream, and east-north-east movement downstream, the net transport being such as to encourage a general steering of systems around the continental land masses more particularly during the warmer seasons. To highlight the dynamic role played by these systems and their cyclonic counterparts, we present a limited investigation of the response of Southern Hemisphere synoptic systems to variations of the broader atmospheric system and compare these findings to those obtained by more traditional analysis techniques.     

Synoptic Typing and Its Application for Evaluating Climatic Impact on Air Quality in Urumqi

An automated procedure employing principal-component analysis and a two-stage cluster analysis was developed to classify the synoptic meteorological conditions prevailing over Urumqi, one of the most heavily polluted cities in the world. Six clusters representing different circulation patterns and air-mass characteristics were classified using surface- and upper-meteorological variables during the heating period from 2001 to 2008, and the relationships between synoptic clusters and air quality were evaluated. The heaviest air-pollution episodes occurred when Urumqi was in either an extremely cold, strong anticyclone or at the front of a migrating cyclone, both with light winds, wet surface air, and relatively dry upper air. Moderate pollution was seen when Urumqi was in the pre-cold/cold frontal passages with lower temperatures and light winds or moderate anticyclone with relatively warmer, drier air. When Urumqi was at the front of a migrating anticyclone or in a weak anticyclone with moderate winds and most warm, dry air, or in the cold/post-cold frontal passages with relatively strongly northerly airflows and precipitation, relatively good air quality could be seen. These results suggest that air pollution in Urumqi is very closely related to the synoptic meteorological conditions, which provides an important basis for not only the prediction and control of urban air-quality problems here but also for the analysis of the differential impacts of weather and pollution on human morbidity.     

A climatology of major avalanche winters in Western Canada

Abstract

A nearly continuous record of avalanches on the Canadian Pacific Railway for the 70 years from 1910 is used to identify four major avalanche winters (1919–20, 1932–33, 1934–35 and 1971–72). The selection is based on the frequency and mass of avalanche snow, and the length of rail line affected near Rogers Pass, British Columbia. Daily weather data are compiled for these winters, and surface synoptic charts are examined for the most catastrophic avalanche events. Their climatology is further analysed by applying a weather‐typing scheme and by constructing monthly sea‐level pressure anomaly maps. More than one climatology is needed to explain these winters and the daily sea‐level map types are not very discriminating. Major avalanche winters tend to be cold in December or January or both. Some show large monthly anomalies in the average pressure distribution over the province. Large avalanches occur when there is a change in the atmospheric circulation, with a Pacific frontal system and warm sector replacing an Arctic high. These aspects of synoptic climatology are related to the mechanisms for producing big avalanches.     

Synoptic volumetric variations and flushing of the Tampa Bay estuary

Two types of analyses are used to investigate the synoptic wind-driven flushing of Tampa Bay in response to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle from 1950 to 2007. Hourly sea level elevations from the St. Petersburg tide gauge, and wind speed and direction from three different sites around Tampa Bay are used for the study. The zonal (u) and meridional (v) wind components are rotated clockwise by 40° to obtain axial and co-axial components according to the layout of the bay. First, we use the subtidal observed water level as a proxy for mean tidal height to estimate the rate of volumetric bay outflow. Second, we use wavelet analysis to bandpass sea level and wind data in the time–frequency domain to isolate the synoptic sea level and surface wind variance. For both analyses the long-term monthly climatology is removed and we focus on the volumetric and wavelet variance anomalies. The overall correlation between the Oceanic Niño Index and volumetric analysis is small due to the seasonal dependence of the ENSO response. The mean monthly climatology between the synoptic wavelet variance of elevation and axial winds are in close agreement. During the winter, El Niño (La Niña) increases (decreases) the synoptic variability, but decreases (increases) it during the summer. The difference in winter El Niño/La Niña wavelet variances is about 20 % of the climatological value, meaning that ENSO can swing the synoptic flushing of the bay by 0.22 bay volumes per month. These changes in circulation associated with synoptic variability have the potential to impact mixing and transport within the bay.     

长三角盛夏—初秋强降水的延伸期过程预报探析

针对长三角汛期强降水过程,根据不同降水类型的特性,提出分时段建立低频模型并给出建模流程。综合分析长三角汛期强降水期的低频特性,将低频气旋及反气旋区分划分7个关键区。重点研究盛夏—初秋时段的强降水特征,在总结强降水期低频特征的基础上,借助EOF分解建立延伸期大—暴雨的预报模型:1区或2区有低频气旋维持并发展;6区、7区或5区存在低频反气旋。并且在7个关键区中1、2区的低频气旋及5、6、7区的低频反气旋为主要低频系统,起决定作用,而3区的低频系统为次要低频系统,起辅助作用。利用该模型提前30 d预报出2012年汛期最强降水过程,并分析本次过程的低频系统演变,给出动态演变模型。     

Historical Climatology In Europe – The State Of The Art

This paper discusses the state of European research in historical climatology. This field of science and an overview of its development are described in detail. Special attention is given to the documentary evidence used for data sources, including its drawbacks and advantages. Further, methods and significant results of historical-climatological research, mainly achieved since 1990, are presented. The main focus concentrates on data, methods, definitions of the “Medieval Warm Period” and the “Little Ice Age”, synoptic interpretation of past climates, climatic anomalies and natural disasters, and the vulnerability of economies and societies to climate as well as images and social representations of past weather and climate. The potential of historical climatology for climate modelling research is discussed briefly. Research perspectives in historical climatology are formulated with reference to data, methods, interdisciplinarity and impacts.     

西北太平洋热带气旋强度统计释用预报方法研究

为了提高西北太平洋地区热带气旋（TC）强度预报准确率，在气候持续预报方法基础上，考虑气候持续性因子、天气因子、卫星资料因子，以TC强度变化为预报对象，运用逐步回归统计方法，建立西北太平洋地区24、48、72小时TC强度预报方程。通过不同的分海区试验（远海区域、华东近海、华南近海），证明回归结果较好。逐一分析选入因子发现：气候持续性因子在方程中相当重要；同时对远海区域和华东近海而言，海温影响也不容忽视，对华南近海而言，反映动力强迫作用的因素也较为重要。卫星资料的加入，对回归结果略有改进。用“刀切法”作独立样本检验，与气候持续法比较，预报误差明显减小。     

造成北京PM10重污染的二类典型天气形势

利用北京空气质量监测资料和NCEP再分析资料,分析了北京发生PM10重污染的天气形势。研究表明:1)虽然北京地区PM10重污染(API指数3级以上)每年只有10 d左右,但与之关联的轻微或轻度空气污染(API指数3级)天数,却可能占全年3级污染总天数的40%-50%。因此,分析研究造成北京PM10重污染的天气形势,对于空气污染的预警预报以及污染源的控制和管理,都具有十分重要意义。2)通过海平面气压场的主观分析,确定了二类北京PM10重污染的典型天气形势,即高压南下东移阻滞型和与北上台风(或热带低压)相关联的弱高压控制型,并指出了后者在2008年奥运会期间,对开展北京空气污染预报和污染控制的指导作用。     

副热带高压的东西向移动及其預报的研究

本文从副热带高压本身的形状、位置与风場結构研究高压单体的移动問題,求得了副热带高压在东西方向上的移速公式,提出根据高压的形状、位置及其南北二側緯向风速分布廓线預报高压移动的具体办法,并討論了外界环流系統及高压本身性状变化对高压移动的影响及其物理性质.     

欧亚冬季温带反气旋活动的气候特征

利用NCEP/NCAR再分析数据,通过判定和追踪温带反气旋的客观方法统计分析了1948-2013年欧亚地区冬季温带反气旋的生成、消亡、移动、生命史、强度等气候特征。结果表明,反气旋的主要源地位于蒙古高原、伊朗及其周边地区、地中海沿岸、中西伯利亚、波罗的海西北部、俄罗斯东北部等地,其中,蒙古高原和伊朗等地也是强反气旋最主要的源地。反气旋活动的大值分布区和反气旋生成的大值中心分布十分相似,主要活跃区对应低空平均经向温度梯度大值区和高空脊前。除源于蒙古高原和西伯利亚东北部的强、弱反气旋的移动距离差别不明显外,其他地区的反气旋移动距离与强度有密切关系。持续1-2 d的反气旋占总数的44.2%,而只有3.2%的反气旋生命史超过一周,且强反气旋比弱反气旋更易持续较长时间。      

A Western North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Intensity Prediction Scheme

A western North Pacific tropical cyclone (TC) intensity prediction scheme (WIPS) is developed based on TC samples from 1996 to 2002 using the stepwise regression technique, with the western North Pacific divided into three sub-regions: the region near the coast of East China (ECR), the South China Sea region (SCR), and the far oceanic region (FOR). Only the TCs with maximum sustained surface wind speed greater than 17.2 m s-1 are used in the scheme. Potential predictors include the climatology and persistence factors, synoptic environmental conditions, potential intensity of a TC and proximity of a TC to land. Variances explained by the selected predictors suggest that the potential intensity of a TC and the proximity of a TC to land are significant in almost all the forecast equations. Other important predictors include vertical wind shear in ECR, 500-hPa geopotential height anomaly at the TC center, zonal component of TC translation speed in SCR, intensity change of TC 12 or 24 h prior to initial time, and the longitude of TC center in FOR. Independent tests are carried out for TCs in 4 yr (2004-2007), with mean absolute errors of the maximum surface wind being 3.0, 5.0, 6.5, 7.3, 7.6, and 7.9 m s-1 for 12- to 72-h predictions at 12-h intervals, respectively. Positive skills are obtained at all leading time levels as compared to the climatology and persistence prediction scheme, and the large skill scores (near or over 20%) after 36 h imply that WIPS performs especially better at longer leading times. Furthermore, it is found that the amendment in TC track prediction and real-time model analysis can significantly improve the performance of WIPS in the SCR and ECR. Future improvements will focus on applying the scheme for weakening TCs and those near the coastal regions.     

Characteristics of mass concentrations depending on synoptic features during airborne dustfall episodes observed at Cheongwon in Korea in 2005

Sandstorms in the desert and loess regions of north China and Mongolia, as well as the associated dustfall episodes on the Korean Peninsula, were monitored in 2005. The ground mass concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 were analyzed during dustfall episodes at Cheongwon, in central south Korea, based on synoptic features at surface, 850 hPa and 500 hPa levels. A total of seven dustfall episodes lasting eleven days were observed and the mass concentration ratios of PM2.5 and PM10 during dustfall episodes were classified into a severe dustfall episode (SDE) and a moderate dustfall episode (MDE) depending upon two synoptic features. The main synoptic feature was for SDEs, which occurred frequently under a surface anticyclone and cyclone located in the west and east of the Korean Peninsula with large amplitude trough at 500 hPa over the northern Korean Peninsula. The sandstorms at the source headed directly to Korea via a strong N-NW wind without passing through any large cities or industrial areas of east China. The PM10 mass concentration sharply increased during the SDEs; however, the fine aerosol fraction of PM2.5 levels was relatively low with 13.6% of the mass concentration. In a synoptic feature for MDEs, a slow moving cyclone headed to Korea via the industrial areas of northeastern China under a small amplitude trough at a 500 hPa level. A weak anticyclone was also located over China. MDEs showed low mass concentrations of coarse PM10 particles and large fraction of fine PM2.5 particles at 46.3%.     

Weather peculiarities of the 2007–2008 cold season in the Northern Caspian Sea

Weather patterns of the cold season in the studied region of the Caspian Sea are quite complicated; ice processes here represent an actual threat for hydrotechnical and other engineering constructions located both on the coast and the Northern Caspian Sea shelf, as well as for the navigation in the ice covered sea. Analysis of the materials obtained from the researches performed in November 2007–March 2008 showed that weather patterns of the 2007–2008 cold season in the Northern Caspian Sea formed under the influence of synoptic processes differed from the multiyear norm. The unusually high frequency of anticyclonic processes (especially, the Siberian anticyclone) defined the low monthly average air temperature in January that was 2–5°C below the climatologic norm over the entire Northern Caspian water area.     

背风波和逆温层效应对兰州小高压形成环境的影响研究

利用兰州和民勤两站干年(1995年)、湿年(1994年)的5~6月08:00和20:00气象观测资料,采用Scorer背风波参数等方法对兰州小高压的形成、发展机制进行动力和热力学诊断分析。分析表明,兰州存在明显的背风波效应和下沉逆温;民勤有较强的逆温层特征,逆温频数多且强度大,辐射和扰动逆温较明显,它们的背风波和逆温层特征影响着兰州小高压的形成、尺度和位置。兰州小高压是青藏高原大地形和大气环流共同作用的一种边界层现象,与青藏高原北部较强的逆温和背风波效应有着重要的关系,运用中尺度天气学方法得出兰州小高压的预报流程,以建立其诊断和预报的概念模型。     

Climatology of Regional Flow Patterns around Basel

Summary Recently a method has been developed to classify local-scale flow patterns from the wind measurements at a dense network of stations. It was found that in the area around Basel twelve characteristic near-surface flow patterns occur. However, as the dense network of stations was running for one year only during the MISTRAL field experiment, no reliable climatology of the flow patterns can be inferred from these data. Mainly the annual cycle is not well determined from a single year of observations. As there exist several routinely operated meteorological stations with longer data records in and near the area discussed, a method was searched to identify the local flow patterns from the wind observations at these few permanent stations. A linear discriminant analysis turned out to be the best method. Based on wind data from 11 stations which were simultaneously in operation during 1990–1995, a six-year climatology of the flow patterns could be obtained and compared to synoptic weather types. Although there are relations to existing synoptic classes there is no unique correspondence between them and the flow patterns. Received February 24, 1997 Revised June 9, 1997