Insights from past and present social science literature on the (unequal) development of New Zealand's rural communities

A review of social research on rural New Zealand undertaken as part of the National Science Challenge (NSC 11) “Building Better Homes, Towns and Cities” allows a fresh look at rural development within the context of New Zealand's colonial history. The research suggests that government development programmes and legislation privileged those responsible for producing the bulk of New Zealand's export income. Cultural attitudes, structural inequalities and a failure to understand how the character of, and social relations in, rural areas have changed has impeded particularly Māori economic growth, the participation of women, and non‐farm sectors of rural society, to the detriment of all.     

Another Landscape of Despair? Charting the ‘Service-Dependent Ghetto’ in Dunedin

Deinstitutionalisation of psychiatric patients since the 1980s has introduced a new population and a new land use to New Zealand's urban areas. This paper reviews the geography of deinstitutionalisation, and investigates whether the North American phenomenon of a service-dependent ghetto can be identified in Dunedin.     

西部省会城市新型城镇化水平综合测度研究

新型城镇化是中国经济社会健康、稳定、可持续发展的根本途径,也是消除中国城乡社会经 济“二元结构”的根本出路。根据新型城镇化的内涵,从人口、经济发展、生活质量、基础设施、资源 环境、城乡统筹 6 个方面,构建了包含 24 项指标的新型城镇化水平综合测度指标体系,运用熵值 法,对西部 11 个省会城市 2005—2015 年的城镇化发展水平进行综合测度。研究表明：西部省会城 市的新型城镇化发展水平存在显著差异,总体上可分为“高等水平”、“中等水平”、“低等水平”3 个 级别,基础设施建设是造成差异的主要驱动力。各城市不同年间的城镇化单项水平影响因素呈现 多元化,在今后的发展中应有所侧重,同时兼顾城镇化质量,推动城乡协调发展。     

Fragmented Urban Spaces? Ethnic Residential Areas in New Zealand Cities, 1996

Residential segregation of ethnic groups is a major feature of cities in multi‐cultural societies such as New Zealand's. Measuring the degree of segregation has been the focus of much attention over the last half century, but there are difficulties with comparative studies using most of the measures adopted. An alternative procedure which classifies residential areas according to a homogeneity‐heterogeneity continuum is applied here to 1996 census small‐scale data for each of New Zealand's 33 main urban areas, to identify the degree of segregation of various ethnic groups. It reports that most New Zealanders from all ethnic groups (defined by self‐identity) live in mixed rather than exclusive residential areas. The main ethnic enclaves/ghettos are occupied by Maori and Pacific Islanders, and are entirely concentrated in the North Island, especially in urban areas which have substantial Polynesian populations.     

HABITAT ISLANDS AND THE PRESERVATION OF NEW ZEALAND'S AVIFAUNA*

ABSTRACT. Numerous avifauna species face extinction on New Zealand's two main islands, owing largely to forest clearance and to introduced mammals. In response, New Zealand selects certain offshore islands for the relocation of threatened native birds, first purging them of mammalian predators. Over the past few decades, this procedure has evolved to become fairly successful. Protected habitat “islands” within mainland forested areas are also being created, but with success less certain. As historic habitats are lost, small biopreservation islands may become a standard mechanism for protecting threatened species, a process that can be termed the “miniaturization” of nature.     

Spatiotemporal evolution of urban air quality and socioeconomic driving forces in China

Air pollution is a serious problem brought by the rapid urbanization and economic development in China, imposing great challenges and threats to population health and the sustainability of the society. Based on the real-time air quality monitoring data obtained for each Chinese city from 2013 to 2014, the spatiotemporal characteristics of air pollution are analyzed using various exploratory spatial data analysis tools. With spatial econometric models, this paper further quantifies the influences of socioeconomic factors on air quality at both the national and regional scales. The results are as follows: (1) From 2013 to 2014, the percentage of days compliance of urban air quality increased but air pollution deteriorated and the worsening situation in regions with poor air quality became more obvious. (2) Changes of air quality show a clear temporal coupling with regional socioeconomic activities, basically “relatively poor at daytime and relatively good at night”. (3) Urban air pollution shows a spatial pattern of “heavy in the east and light in the west, and heavy in the north and light in the south”. (4) The overall extent and distribution of regional urban air pollution have clearly different characteristics. The formation and evolution of regional air pollution can be basically induced as “the pollution of key cities is aggravated—pollution of those cities spreads—regional overall pollution is aggravated—the key cities lead in pollution governance—regional pollution joint prevention and control is implemented—regional overall pollution is reduced”. (5) At the national level, energy consumption, industrialization and technological progress are the major factors in the worsening of urban air quality, economic development is a significant driver for the improvement of that quality. (6) Influenced by resources, environment and the development stage, the socioeconomic factors had strongly variable impacts on air quality, in both direction and intensity in different regions. Based on the conclusion, the regional differentiation and development idea of the relationship between economic development and environmental changes in China are discussed.     

中国人口收缩的城乡分异特征及形成机理

在县市尺度上对2000—2010年人口收缩区的城乡分异特征进行分析,划分出城增乡减型、城乡双收缩型和城减乡增型等类型,并建立人口收缩城乡分异的理论分析框架,探讨了不同类型的形成机理,主要的发现如下：① 2000—2010年,人口收缩单元占比约为38.6%,城增乡减型单元占据绝对主体,达到34.5%,而“城乡双收缩型”和“城减乡增型”单元占比均较低。② 中部地区人口收缩区城镇人口增长普遍较快,东北地区城乡双收缩的特征较为突出,而东部和西部地区存在较明显的空间分异。③ 城镇化水平和经济发展水平对人口收缩城乡分异特征的影响最为显著,城镇化水平较高而经济发展水平较低的人口收缩区越可能出现城镇人口增长缓慢甚至城乡双收缩。④ 经济发展速度、人口自然增长水平、公共服务等因素对人口收缩城乡分异特征也存在一定的影响。     

大气污染物排放量与颗粒物环境空气质量的空间非协同耦合研究——以武汉市为例

针对区域大气污染物排放量与空气质量在时空分布上存在不完全协同、匹配的现象,论文选择SO₂、NO_X、PM_2.5、CO和VOCs作为大气污染物指标,选择气溶胶光学厚度(Aerosol Optical Depth, AOD)表征颗粒物环境空气质量,以武汉市为例,综合应用耦合模型和空间错位指数模型研究2类指标之间的空间非协同耦合规律。主要结论如下：① 武汉市大气污染物排放量与颗粒物空气质量具有不同空间分布特征,大气污染物排放量呈现由城市中心城区向远城区递减的趋势,其中SO₂、PM_2.5和VOCs的排放具有明显的中心聚集现象,而NO_X和CO聚集现象不显著,且与道路分布明显相关;AOD分布具有明显的空间差异性,总体上呈由西北向东南依次递减的趋势。② 武汉市大气污染物排放与颗粒物空气质量的空间非协同耦合规律：越靠近城市中心城区,空间协同耦合现象越显著,空间错位现象越弱;越远离主城区,空间非协同耦合现象越显著,空间错位现象越显著;SO₂排放量与AOD在武汉市远城区的空间错位指数均大于0.7,且耦合度指数小于0.3,呈现较强的非协同耦合特征,NO_X、VOCs、PM_2.5的排放量与AOD在武汉中心城区的空间错位指数均小于0.5,且耦合度指数大于0.5,协同耦合现象较为显著。③ 基于时空非协同耦合分析城市大气环境污染治理建议：针对污染物与AOD空间错位不显著的城市中心城区,以本地减排治理为主;针对污染物与AOD空间错位显著的远城区,应在污染溯源分析的基础上进行区域协调综合治理。     

城市NOx 人体健康风险评估的GIS 应用研究

城市大气污染是人类目前及未来面临的主要健康威胁之一， 而随着交通的发展NOx 对 人体健康的影响越来越受到重视。基于GIS 技术进行健康风险评估的研究是目前城市环境健康 问题研究的热点。论文采用环境健康风险评估的基本框架( 浓度、暴露、剂量、效应4 个环节) ， 应 用GIS 栅格数据模型和域面分析技术构建城市空气质量健康风险空间量化评估模型， 模拟了主 要大气污染物NOx 的剂量—效应函数关系； 并根据污染物的分布进行城市局地尺度NOx 健康风 险评估。     

Spatiotemporal characteristics of urban air quality in China and geographic detection of their determinants

Ambient air pollution brought by the rapid economic development and industrial production in China has exerted a significant influence on socio-economic activities and public health, especially in the densely populated urban areas. Therefore, scientific examination of regional variation of urban air quality and its dominant factors is of great importance to regional environmental management. Based on daily air quality index (AQI) datasets spanning from 2014 to 2016, this study analysed the spatiotemporal characteristics of air quality across different regions throughout China and ascertained the determinants of urban air quality in disparate regions. The main findings are as follows: (1) The annual average value of the urban AQI in China decreased from 2014 to 2016, indicating a desirable trend in air quality at the national scale. (2) The attainment rate of the urban AQI exhibited an apparent spatially stratified heterogeneity, wherein North China retained a high AQI value. The increase of Moran’s I Index reported an apparent spillover effect among adjacent regions. (3) Both at the national and regional scales, the seasonal tendency of air quality in each year is similar, wherein good in summer and relatively poor in winter. (4) Results drawn from the Geographic Detector analysis show that dominant factors influencing AQI vary significantly across urban agglomerations. Topographical and meteorological variations in urban areas may lead to complex spatiotemporal variations in pollutant concentration. Whereas given the same natural conditions, the human-dominated factors, such as industrial structure and urban form, exert significant impacts on urban air quality.The spatial spillover effects and regional heterogeneity of urban air quality illustrated in this study suggest the governments and institutions should set priority to the importance of regional cooperation and collaboration in light of environment regulation and pollution prevention.     

高温影响下西安市人口脆弱性评估及其空间分异

高温给城市人口健康和社会发展带来的脆弱性后果愈发严重,如何科学量化与评估城市高温人口脆弱性,为制定更具针对性的高温适应对策提供科学依据成为当前国际研究热点。在城市高温人口脆弱性分析框架基础上,以西安市为例,整合遥感影像、手机信令、POI、社会经济等多源数据,从高温暴露、敏感性、适应能力3个维度构建高温影响下人口脆弱性评估指标体系和脆弱性测度模型,揭示高温人口脆弱性等级分布特征和空间异质性,识别人口脆弱性空间地域及其致脆因子类型。结果表明：① 西安市高温暴露、敏感性和适应能力都表现出显著的空间集聚特征,且总体上均呈现出“中心-边缘”结构,即城市中心地区形成“高暴露、高敏感、高适应”,城市边缘表现为“低暴露、低敏感、低适应”。② 西安市人口脆弱性以低值和较低水平为主,脆弱性也具有显著的空间集聚性,脆弱性较高地区主要集中在城市三环以内,形成断续的“岛状”分布形态,脆弱性低值和较低值地区分布在城市边缘。③ 不同致脆类型的面积占比依次为综合主导型（37.3%）>高温暴露主导型（33.3%）>适应能力不足主导型（23.6%）>人口敏感主导型（5.8%）;高温暴露主导型广泛分布在城市中心、北部和西部等地,人口敏感主导型相对集中在城市中心偏南地区,适应能力不足主导型主要分布在城市边缘,综合主导型主要集中在城市南部,北部也有大量分散式分布。本研究可在城市高温人口脆弱性评估方法,城市高温人口脆弱性的减缓与治理等方面提供借鉴和启示。     

基于栅格的区域人居自然和人文环境质量综合评价——以京津冀地区为例

区域人居环境质量对于区域社会经济发展具有重要意义。本文以京津冀地区为例,基于人居自然要素指数（地形起伏度、气候指数、水文指数和植被指数）和人文要素指数（夜间灯光指数、空气质量指数和交通通达指数）构建了人居环境质量综合指数（HSCI）,分析了2010年其空间分异规律,并探讨了人口分布与人居环境质量的相关性。主要结论为：① 人居自然环境受距渤海距离和太行山脉的影响较为明显,呈现由东南向西北递减的空间分异规律。其中,紧邻渤海的天津市和沧州市最好,太行山西侧的张家口市和承德市最差。② 人居人文环境在城市地区明显优于非城市地区,并表现出与行政级别相一致的层级结构。同时由于南部空气质量较差,其人文环境整体劣于北部。其中,北京市人文环境最优,衡水市最差。③ 人居环境质量综合指数既表现出由东南向西北依次递减的规律,又表现出城市地区向非城市地区依次递减的圈层结构,以及高级别行政区优于低级别行政区的层级结构。其中,天津市和唐山市人居环境质量最优,张家口市和承德市最差。④ 京津冀地区人口并非在人居环境最好的地方分布最多,而是在人居环境中等的地方分布最多,二者呈正态分布规律。整体来看,人居环境质量综合指数大于0.6的土地约占35%,却聚集了约40%的人口,说明该区充分利用了高人居环境质量的土地,人口与人居环境质量分布较为协调。     

基于高频空间分析的襄阳市春节期间烟花爆竹禁放效果评估

为研究襄阳市区春节期间空气污染时空规律及烟花爆竹禁放效果,利用密集空气质量监测微型站、稀疏国控站以及气象站等数据,借助高频率空间分析、相关性分析以及浓度特征比较等方法,研究了局地尺度下襄阳市区春节期间空气污染时空变化,评估了历年春节期间烟花爆竹禁止燃放举措的实施成效。结果表明：1)2018年新春佳节期间襄阳市区天气总体平稳,空气质量整体较差,受市区外围周边地区在除夕至初一燃放烟花爆竹影响,空气质量由除夕轻度转成初一重度污染;从除夕夜T 19:00开始,PM_2.5和PM₁₀质量浓度逐步上升,初一T 00:00过后直线升高,至初一早上T 08:00达到春节期间峰值,该时段SO₂和NO₂质量浓度也有明显升高。2)新春佳节期间局地尺度下襄阳市区PM_2.5和PM₁₀日均质量浓度空间分布整体较为一致,在除夕、初二至初五均呈现以汉江与唐白河为界、“南高北低”的中度以上污染态势,而初一、初六则呈现污染连绵成片、大范围覆盖等特点。3)市区外围周边地区烟花爆竹燃放是造成春节期...     

THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF URBAN GROWTH: CROSS-NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT,AIR POLLUTION,AND CITY SIZE

This study presents a quantitative assessment of the environmental consequences of urbanization in general and city bigness in particular in the context of the process of economic development. We focus attention on the relationship between ambient air quality and city size, and how it might differ between urban areas of developed and developing countries. First, the air pollution-city size relationship is characterized theoretically and explored empirically using ambient air quality data for various urban zones across an international sample of cities. While we find statistically significant relationships between pollution and city size, interesting developed-developing country differences emerge. Next, the relationship is re-estimated using contextual development covariates. Results show that the positive association between poor air quality and city size is not inevitable and tends to diminish with economic growth and the capacity for undertaking pollution abatement measures. It follows that restricting urban growth in developing countries may be neither necessary nor sufficient for achieving environmental gains.     

城市NOx 人体健康风险评估的GIS 应用研究

城市大气污染是人类目前及未来面临的主要健康威胁之一, 而随着交通的发展NOx 对 人体健康的影响越来越受到重视。基于GIS 技术进行健康风险评估的研究是目前城市环境健康 问题研究的热点。论文采用环境健康风险评估的基本框架( 浓度、暴露、剂量、效应4 个环节) , 应 用GIS 栅格数据模型和域面分析技术构建城市空气质量健康风险空间量化评估模型, 模拟了主 要大气污染物NOx 的剂量—效应函数关系; 并根据污染物的分布进行城市局地尺度NOx 健康风 险评估。     

社区公园空气污染暴露特征及其居民感知——以广州市中心城区为例

基于空气污染监测与问卷调查数据,研究了广州中心城区33个社区公园空气污染暴露特征、影响因素及其居民对空气污染感知。主要结论为：1）各区社区公园空气污染暴露风险及其空间格局分布差异较大,低暴露风险公园所占比例较小。2）空气质量指数（AQI）、PM_1.0和PM₁₀与社区公园面积呈显著负相关;AQI、PM_1.0、PM₁₀和PM_2.5与斑块形状指数呈显著正相关关系;二氧化碳（CO₂）与离城市主干道距离呈显著负相关,但社区公园1 km缓冲区范围内城市道路密度与其空气污染关系不大。3）超过1/3的居民对社区公园空气污染程度的主观感知优于客观测度的空气污染水平。4）可替代活动空间以及社区公园可达性影响居民空气污染暴露风险。由于社区公园面积规模较小,对空气污染减缓作用有限,未来应尽可能规划面积规模较大、可达性较高、形状更饱满且远离交通主干道的社区公园。     

AMENITY MIGRATION IN THE U.S. SIERRA NEVADA*

ABSTRACT. Since 1960 California's Sierra Nevada counties have ranked among the regions with the strongest relative population growth in the state. Reassessment of peripheral areas has been the main force driving population and settlement growth in the central Sierra Nevada of California and Nevada, termed “amenity migration” or “counterurbanization.” This study analyzes the impacts of amenity migrants—“urban refugees”—on socioeconomic conditions in high‐mountain regions. We define these regions as the “High Sierra,” comprising zones at elevations more than 1,800 meters above sea level. People who migrate to the High Sierra tend to be white and well educated, with considerable household earnings. Unlike the population in the foothills, these migrants are not senior citizens. Their demand for periodic or permanent residences has caused housing prices to increase enormously. As a result, a majority of homes are now priced well beyond the reach of local salaries, which may lead to potential conflict between locals and newcomers. The massive settlement expansion in high‐mountain areas requires a new approach to land‐use planning, one that takes functional regions into account. Therefore, it is expedient to reassess existing jurisdictional boundaries.     

中国城市空气质量时空特征及其影响因素的地理探测（英文）

Ambient air pollution brought by the rapid economic development and industrial production in China has exerted a significant influence on socio-economic activities and public health, especially in the densely populated urban areas. Therefore, scientific examination of regional variation of urban air quality and its dominant factors is of great importance to regional environmental management. Based on daily air quality index(AQI) datasets spanning from 2014 to 2016, this study analysed the spatiotemporal characteristics of air quality across different regions throughout China and ascertained the determinants of urban air quality in disparate regions. The main findings are as follows:(1) The annual average value of the urban AQI in China decreased from 2014 to 2016, indicating a desirable trend in air quality at the national scale.(2) The attainment rate of the urban AQI exhibited an apparent spatially stratified heterogeneity, wherein North China retained a high AQI value. The increase of Moran's I Index reported an apparent spillover effect among adjacent regions.(3) Both at the national and regional scales, the seasonal tendency of air quality in each year is similar, wherein good in summer and relatively poor in winter.(4) Results drawn from the Geographic Detector analysis show that dominant factors influencing AQI vary significantly across urban agglomerations. Topographical and meteorological variations in urban areas may lead to complex spatiotemporal variations in pollutant concentration. Whereas given the same natural conditions, the human-dominated factors, such as industrial structure and urban form, exert significant impacts on urban air quality.The spatial spillover effects and regional heterogeneity of urban air quality illustrated in this study suggest the governments and institutions should set priority to the importance of regional cooperation and collaboration in light of environment regulation and pollution prevention.     

Spatial Patterns of Migration and Income Change in the Mountain West: The Dominance of Service-Based,Amenity-Rich Counties

One of the most recognizable and important changes occurring in the West is rapid population growth. This article intends to address questions associated with whether patterns of population growth and income migration are associated with “new” and “old” West economies. Rural restructuring in the U.S. has created a group of counties with service-based economies. In the Mountain West, a number of counties with service-based economies are located in areas with high levels of environmental or natural amenities, creating what has been termed the “New West.” Migration to the rural parts of the Mountain West, and the income transfers associated with migration, are increasingly concentrated within these New West counties. Rapid population growth, the changing characteristics of in-migrants, and their spatial concentration in New West counties provide a basis for conflicts over what the rural West is becoming.     

Spatial Patterns of Migration and Income Change in the Mountain West: The Dominance of Service‐Based,Amenity‐Rich Counties

One of the most recognizable and important changes occurring in the West is rapid population growth. This article intends to address questions associated with whether patterns of population growth and income migration are associated with “new” and “old” West economies. Rural restructuring in the U.S. has created a group of counties with service‐based economies. In the Mountain West, a number of counties with service‐based economies are located in areas with high levels of environmental or natural amenities, creating what has been termed the “New West.” Migration to the rural parts of the Mountain West, and the income transfers associated with migration, are increasingly concentrated within these New West counties. Rapid population growth, the changing characteristics of in‐migrants, and their spatial concentration in New West counties provide a basis for conflicts over what the rural West is becoming.