Spatial pattern of localized disturbance along a Southeastern salt marsh tidal creek

Geomorphology may be an important predictor of vegetation pattern in systems where suceptibility to disturbance is unevenly distributed across the landscape. Salt marsh communities exhibit spatial pattern in vegetation at a variety of spatial scales. In coastal Georgia, the low marsh is a virtual monoculture ofSpartina alterniflora interspersed with patches of species that are more typical of the high marsh. These localized disturbances are most likely created by wrack mats, mats of dead vegetation which can compact and smother underlying vegetation creating bare patches for colonization by high marsh species. We investigated the spatial pattern of disturbed patches along a 2 km section of Dean Creek, a tidal creek at the southwestern end of Sapelo Island, Georgia, U.S. We used a discriminant model to explore the relationship between tidal creek morphology (e.g., the presence of drainage channels and creek bends) and the spatial distribution of disturbed patches. The model predicted vegetation pattern along the creek with relatively high accuracy (>70%). Areas where water movement is slowed or multidirectional (e.g., along creek bends and near drainage channels) were most susceptible to disturbance. Our findings suggest an important functional linkage between geomorphology and vegetation pattern in salt marsh communities.     

崇明东滩盐沼潮沟水动力过程观测与分析

2007年7月在上海崇明东滩盐沼内部采用复合测量手段进行了现场观测,对取得的盐沼水动力过程数据进行了较系统的分析。崇明东滩盐沼内部的观测及分析结果表明:(1)潮沟及盐沼表面对潮波产生严重阻尼作用,潮波传播至盐沼内部时,潮沟水位波动明显异于外海,水位上升极快,而下降慢。当潮沟有退水时,涨潮初期的当地水位上升并不是潮水进入潮沟的结果,而是流向相反的潮沟进口涨潮水和潮沟内退潮水形成的水位壅高;(2)潮波进入盐沼内部时,风具有一定作用,向岸风可抬高潮沟及盐沼内部水位,离岸风反之;(3)潮沟水流流速与潮沟水位变化率、外海潮位变化率都不存在相关关系;(4)潮沟水位低时,过流断面较小,涨潮水进入潮沟时,潮沟水一旦改变流向,就具备很高的流速并伴随流速峰值的出现。潮沟水向盐沼表面漫溢时,过流断面突变,潮沟流速出现峰值。由于潮沟退潮水位变化慢,盐沼表面水归槽时并没有产生潮沟流速峰值。根据崇明东滩观测结果,概括了盐沼水动力过程的影响因素,指出了以后研究应重视的问题。     

Exchange of microbial biomass between aSpartina alterniflora marsh and the adjacent tidal creek

Salt marsh systems of the southeastern United States are characterized by extensive stands ofSpartina alterniflora. These marshes may influence the concentrations of material suspended in flooding and receding tidal waters. The ability of aSpartina alterniflora-dominated marsh to influence the concentration of suspended microbial biomass was investigated through the use of a 142-m long flume. The flume extended through stands of tall-, medium-, and short-heightSpartina. Water passing through the tallSpartina lost a considerable portion of microbial biomass. Initial samples from medium-heightSpartina were collected from water that had already passed through the tall grass. These samples contained 20 to 70% less microbial biomass than did water entering the tallSpartina. Calculations of mass transport suggest that the tallSpartina zone of marsh acts as a sink for microbial biomass while the short-heightSpartina tends to export biomass (to the tallSpartina zone). The marsh as a whole acts as a sink for microbial biomass. Transport estimates from 32 individual tide cycles were modeled to obtain an annual estimate of transport. As a consequence of high variability among individual transport estimates, no annual transport estimate could be distingushed from a net-zero transport.     

Longitudinal characterization of a tidal marsh creek separating two hydrographically distinct estuaries

Jones Creek, South Carolina, connects two hydrographically distinct estuarine systems: North Inlet and Winyah Bay. One hundred fifty-two sets of hydrographic measurements from February 1978 indicate the existence of a Jones Creek nodal point, an effective barrier limiting flow exchange between the end regions of the creek. Morphologic and vegetation observations and water quality ratings suggest that this nodal point is a permanent feature of Jones Creek and may be present in other similar systems.     

Oregon coastal salt marsh upper limits and tidal datums

Three coastal salt marshes were surveyed independently by two teams of biologists to determine the upper limit of marsh. Distribution of species and species assemblages were related to surveyed elevations for South Beach marsh, Yaquina River estuary; Drift Creek marsh, Alsea River estuary; and Bandon marsh, Coquille River estuary. A transition zone between marsh and upland was identified by strong dominance ofPotentilla pacifica and the presence ofAchillea millefolium, Angelica lucida, Aster subspicatus, Oenanthe sarmentosa, Trifolium wormskjoldii, andVicia gigantea. Mean elevation of the lower boundary of the transition zone was 1.38 m above National Geodetic Vertical Datum (N.G.V.D.) and the upper boundary of the transition zone was 1.54 m above N. G. V. D. Relation of the upper limit of marsh to tidal datums varied with marsh. Mean elevation of the upper and lower limit of the transition zone was 0.58 m above MHW and 0.36 m above MHW, respectively. The two teams of biologists using the same biological criteria for defining the upper limit of marsh, independently agreed on the elevational position of the upper limit of marsh. Additional research and testing of the definition of the upper limit of marsh is warranted.     

Effect of improved tidal flushing and competitive interactions at the boundary between salt marsh and pasture

Zonation of salt marsh plants has been widely recognized and studied, but the boundary between salt marsh and adjacent upland plants has seldom been considered. Three hypotheses about the boundary between salt marsh and adjacent upland pasture were tested on Kooragang Island, New South Wales, Australia. First, we hypothesized that increased tidal range resulting from removal of culverts that restricted tidal flow to areas of salt marsh would lead to landward spread of salt marsh into areas previously dominated by pasture. Monitoring results showed an increase in areal cover by salt marsh plants and a decrease in pasture plants along the boundary between salt marsh and pasture in areas affected by culvert removal, while no change could be detected at a reference site unaffected by culvert removal. Second, we hypothesized that the down-gradient distribution of the pasture species Stenotaphrum secundatum (buffalo grass) was restricted by physical conditions, while the up-gradient distribution of the salt marsh species Sarcocornia quinqueflora (samphire) was restricted by competition with pasture species. Results of a reciprocal transplant experiment were consistent with this hypothesis. Third, we hypothesized that the rate of salt marsh spread following culvert removal would be influenced by competition with pasture species. Results of an experiment in which pasture was removed adjacent to a salt marsh affected by culvert removal were consistent with this hypothesis. Results may help guide management of over 1,300 structures that restrict tidal flow to estuarine wetland habitat in New South Wales, Australia.     

Rapidly entrainable tidal vertical migrations in the salt marsh snailLittoraria irrorata

The salt marsh periwinkleLittoraria irrorata (Say) remains on the substratum during low tide but climbs above the water on stalks ofSpartina alterniflora Loisel during high tide. Rhythmic tidal migrations may allowL. irrorata to avoid predators such as blue crabsCallinectes sapidus Rathbun that forage when the marsh is inundated. These tidal rhythms may be driven by endogenous clocks or they may be easily entrained. Snails with flexible and entrainable climbing rhythms may be able to avoid predators in unpredictable environments (e.g., when water unexpectedly covers the substratum as in storm surges). We tested the behavioral response ofL. irrorata to different simulated tidal regimes in the laboratory, and the effect of remaining above mean high water (MHW) on snail survivorship in a smallS. alterniflora salt marsh. In laboratory mesocosms, vertical snail position was measured under constant water levels, simulated tidal cycles, and simulated tidal cycles 180° out of phase (reversed). Under constant water levels, snails ceased to migrate vertically after 1 d. When exposed to tidal and reversed tidal cycles, snails migrated in synchrony with the appropriate simulated rhythm.L. irrorata entrained quickly to differing tidal cycles and maintained their position above the water surfce when water levels were high. In a field experiment, snails were tethered toS. alteriflora plants near the substratum and above MHW in the marsh for 1 wk to assess survival. Survival of snails tethered above MHW was sigificantly greater than for snails tethered at the base of plants; no snails in control cages died. Rapid alteration of tidal vertical migrations may allowL. irrorata to avoid predators that forage when water inundates the marsh predictably or unexpectedly.     

Productivity,detritus flux,and nutrient cycling in a Carex lyngbyei tidal marsh

Net annual primary production of a sedge Carex lyngbyei dominated tidal marsh in the Fraser River estuary, British Columbia, Canada was 634 g ash-free dry weight (AFDW) per m² per yr (687 g dry weight per m² per yr). Mean maximum shoot elongation during the short (May to August) growing season was 1.88 cm per day from overwintering shoots. The maximum aboveground standing crop of 690 g AFDW per m² represented only 25% of the total below-ground biomass, which appears to be controlling most of the critical life history processes of the sedge marsh. An estimate of 14 percent of the aboveground standing crop was lost through leaching of dissolved organic carbon from the growting plant. Aboveground tissue losses, which were negligible during the growing season, occurred primarily via translocation in autumn and tidal export during the winter. In situ measurements showed that of the original maximum standing crop, approximately 38%, 37%, and 25% were lost by downward translocation, tidal export, and sediment burial, respectively. Based on changes in above and belowground nutrient pools, rapid spring (May to late June) uptake rates of 109 mg N per m² per day and 23.0 mg P per m² per day by shoots were followed by downward translocation rates of 44.8 mg N per m² per day and 12.2 mg P per m² per day during late June to the end of August. Aboveground leaching rates were estimated as 23.9 mg N per m² per day and 7.8 mg P m² per day and belowground uptake rates as 100 mg N per m² per day and 26 mg P per m² per day; root uptake occurred primarily after late June. Nutrient levels in decomposing litter more than doubled over the winter period showing a pattern of nutrient enrichment characteristic of marsh ecosystems. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY023 00004     

Marsh-creek connectivity: Fish use of a tidal salt marsh in Southern California

Salt marsh habitats influenced by southern California's mixed, semi-diurnal tides are, on average, accessible to fishes less than 16% of the time. However, five species (four natives, one oxotic) and a variety of juvenile and adult size classes were collected on the marsh surface during a year-long sampling from June 1997 through June 1998 at Sweetwater Marsh National Wildlife Refuge on San Diego Bay.Fundulus parvipinis andGillichthys mirabilis were the most abundant fish species using the marsh. Analyses of their guts revealed that the marsh surface provides a rich foraging area for fishes on high spring tides.F. parvipinnis with marsh access consumed six times as much food as fishes restricted to creek habitats (on a g-food g-fish^?1 basis) and also fed on additional prey types. Because the salt marsh is an important foraging area for fishes, we recommend that restoration projects (especially those intended to mitigate lost fish habitat) include vegetated areas with interconnecting tidal creeks.     

The value of salt marsh edge vs interior as a habitat for fish and decapod crustaceans in a Louisiana tidal marsh

Flume nets of various lengths and a 3-m seine were used to sample the fishes and macrocrustaceans using a flooded Louisiana salt marsh and the adjacent tidal creek. The experiment allowed for species-specific comparisons of the flooded marsh at the creek edge versus the interior. Of the 37,667 organisms collected in flume nets from January through November 1989, 89% were decapods (nine species) and 11% were fish (29 species). An additional 18,539 organisms (75% decapods and 25% fish) were collected from concurrent seine samples taken from July through November. Comparison of catches among different flume lengths and low tide versus high tide seine collections revealed distinct patterns of marsh habitat utilization. Densities of most organisms were highest within 3 m of the water’s edge, but significant numbers of marsh-resident fish species used the interior marshes. The edge marshes appeared to be used by both transient and resident species; however, the interior marshes were used primarily by marsh-resident species (Cyprinodontiformes andPalaemonetes sp.) that are excellent food sources for adult transient-species. Four zonations of marsh use are described for transients, residents, and rare species.     

Accumulation of plant nutrients and heavy metals through sedimentation processes and accretion in a Louisiana salt marsh

The accumulation of selected plant nutrients and heavy metals in a rapidly accreting Louisiana salt marsh was examined. Sedimentation processes were shown to be supplying large amounts of plant nutrients to the marsh. Accumulation of heavy metals was low and appeared to be associated with the natural heavy metal content of incoming sediment rather than from a pollution source. A large portion of organic carbon from primary production remained in the marsh, contributing to the aggradation process of vertical marsh accretion. Nitrogen accumulated in the marsh at rates as great as 21 g per m² per yr.     

Response of juvenile fish assemblages in tidal salt marsh creeks treated forPhragmites removal

We examined fish assemblages in tidal salt marsh creeks in Delaware Bay in order to evaluate their response to treatment forPhragmites removal following initial treatment in 1996. In Alloway Crrek, a tributary to Delaware Bay, reference creeks draining marsh of untreatedPhragmites or naturally occurringSpartina were compared with creeks in marshes treated forPhragmites removal. These reference and treated creeks occur in close proximity and share many characteristics including salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity, although creeks inPhragmites sites differed slightly in bathymetry. We analyzed a time series of otter trawl collections (22 monthly sample periods from 1999 to 2001) for differences in juvenile fish assemblage among creeks with different vegetation history. Periodically, young-of-the-year (YOY) and age 1+ white perch (Morone americana), YOY spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), YOY Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), and other species were relatively more abundant atPhragmites sites, but other dominant species were preiodically abundant at all sites. Among-treatment differences based on principal response curves analysis accounted for about 19% of the total species variation, but differences varied widely among sample periods and there is little or no indication of a trend over the 3-yr period. Larger collections were often associated with subtidal structure, which was more common atPhragmites sites and potentially represents a sampling artifact. Assemblages of creeks with differing vegetation history differ weakly but recognizably, suggesting slow or little response to treatment, at least based on otter trawl collections in subtidal marsh creeks.

     

The effect of tidal forcing on biogeochemical processes in intertidal salt marsh sediments

Background  

Early diagenetic processes involved in natural organic matter (NOM) oxidation in marine sediments have been for the most part characterized after collecting sediment cores and extracting porewaters. These techniques have proven useful for deep-sea sediments where biogeochemical processes are limited to aerobic respiration, denitrification, and manganese reduction and span over several centimeters. In coastal marine sediments, however, the concentration of NOM is so high that the spatial resolution needed to characterize these processes cannot be achieved with conventional sampling techniques. In addition, coastal sediments are influenced by tidal forcing that likely affects the processes involved in carbon oxidation.     

Changing elevation,accretion, and tidal marsh plant assemblages in a South San Francisco Bay tidal marsh

Analyses of organic content, pollen, and the carbon-isotopic composition of a 3.5-m sediment core collected from a subsided tidal marsh located in South San Francisco Bay, California, have provided a 500-yr record of sediment accretion and vegetation change before, during, and after a rapid 1 m increase in sea level. Core chronology was established using¹⁴C dating of fossil plant material, the first appearance of pollen types produced by plants not native to California, and changes in lead concentrations coincident with anthropogenic contamination. Prior to the mid 19th century, rates of sediment accretion were between 1 and 4 mm yr⁻¹; sediment accretion accelerated to an average of 22 mm yr⁻¹ following the initiation of subsidence. Changes in tidal marsh vegetation also accompanied this depositional change. Vegetation shifted from a high to low marsh assemblage, as indicated by a larger percentage of grass pollen, rhizomes ofSpartina foliosa, and a strong C₄ signal. Between 1980 and 2001, Triangle marsh again developed high marsh vegetation, as indicated by higher percentages of the Amaranthaceane pollen type, seed deposition, includingSalicornia spp., and more negative carbon isotopic ratios.     

Flow paths of water and sediment in a tidal marsh: Relations with marsh developmental stage and tidal inundation height

This study provides new insights in the relative role of tidal creeks and the marsh edge in supplying water and sediments to and from tidal marshes for a wide range of tidal inundation cycles with different high water levels and for marsh zones of different developmental stage. Net import or export of water and its constituents (sediments, nutrients, pollutants) to or from tidal marshes has been traditionally estimated based on discharge measurements through a tidal creek. Complementary to this traditional calculation of water and sediment balances based on creek fluxes, we present novel methods to calculate water balances based on digital elevation modeling and sediment balances based on spatial modeling of surface sedimentation measurements. In contrast with spatial interpolation, the presented approach of spatial modeling accounts for the spatial scales at which sedimentation rates vary within tidal marshes. This study shows that for an old, high marsh platform, dissected by a well-developed creek network with adjoining levees and basins, flow paths are different for tidal inundation cycles with different high water levels: during shallow inundation cycles (high water level <0.2 m above the creek banks) almost all water is supplied via the creek system, while during higher inundation cycles (high water level >0.2 m) the percentage of water directly supplied via the marsh edge increases with increasing high water level. This flow pattern is in accordance with the observed decrease in sedimentation rates with increasing distance from creeks and from the marsh edge. On a young, low marsh, characterized by a gently seaward sloping topography, material exchange does not take place predominantly via creeks but the marsh is progressively flooded starting from the marsh edge. As a consequence, the spatial sedimentation pattern is most related to elevation differences and distance from the marsh edge. Our results imply that the traditional measurement of tidal creek fluxes may lead in many cases to incorrect estimations of net sediment or nutrient budgets.     

Methane and carbon dioxide flux from a macrotidal salt marsh,Bay of Fundy,New Brunswick

Fluxes of methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) to the atmosphere at 52 sites within a salt marsh were measured by a dark static chamber technique from mid July to mid September. Mean CH₄ fluxes ranged from 0.2 mg m^?2 d^?1 to 11.0 mg m^?2 d^?1, with an overall average of 1.6 mg m^?2 d^?1. Flux of CH₄ was inversely correlated (r²=0.23, p = 0.001) with salinity of the upper porewater at the site, suggesting the dominant role of SO₄ ^2? in inhibiting methanogenesis in salt-marsh sediments. The combination of salinity and water table position was able to explain only 29% of the variance in CH₄ emission. Mean soil flux of CO₂ ranged from 0.3 g m^?2 d^?1 to 3.7 g m^?2 d^?1, with an overall average of 2.5 g m^?2 d^?1; it was correlated with aboveground biomass (positive, r²=0.38, p = 0.001) and position of the water table (negative, r² = 0.55, p = 0.001). The combination of biomass and water table position accounted for 63% of the variance in CO₂ flux. There were high variations in gas flux within the six plant communities. The sequences were CH₄: upland edge > panne > pool > middle marsh > low marsh > high marsh, and CO₂: middle marsh > low marsh > upland edge > high marsh > panne > pool. Compared to other salt-marsh systems, this Bay of Fundy marsh emits small amounts of CH₄ and CO₂.     

The utilization of an intertidal salt marsh creek by larval and juvenile fishes: Abundance,diversity and temporal variation

The utilization of an intertidal salt marsh creek in South Carolina during January 1977 was determined by sampling every third ebb tide for 13 days. All fishes leaving the creek during that period were captured in a channel net. This procedure produced a time-series of samples which permitted analysis of the fish community occupying the intertidal creek at all times of day and night. A total of 14,730 larval, juvenile, and adult fishes comprising at least 22 species in 16 families were collected. The most common larval and juvenile fishes wereLeiostomus xanthurus, Mugil spp.,Myrophis punctatus leptocephali,Lagodon rhomboides, Paralichthys spp., andMicropogon undulatus. Catch sizes for all species varied widely between samples. No diurnal-nocturnal pattern in catches was evident forL. xanthurus, Mugil spp.,L. rhomboides andM. undulatus. M. punctatus was taken in large numbers only when the flood tide occurred during the day, while moreParalichthys spp. larvae were taken in late afternoon-evening flood tide samples. The most common invertebrate,Palaemonetes pugio, was taken in large quantities only in late afternoon-night flood tide samples. Three diversity indices were computed for each sample. Values for all indices varied widely between successive samples. The results emphasize a high degree of utilization of the intertidal creek habitat by larval and juvenile fishes. The diurnal-nocturnal activity patterns of some species, and the wide variation in catch size of the other species can permit use of the intertidal salt marsh habitat with reduced competition for available space and energy.     

The flume net: A quantitative method for sampling fishes and macrocrustaceans on tidal marsh surfaces

We describe the use of flume nets for passively, quantitatively, and nondestructively sampling fishes and macrocrustaceans on tidal marsh surfaces. We captured 3,765 organisms of 23 species in 118 samples using six such nets in a Virginia tidal freshwater marsh in 1984. Efficiency estimates for four common species of fishes range from 53 to 80%. Flume nets are most suited to the collection of long-term data and are particularly useful in elucidating seasonal trends in species composition and relative abundance. These nets are also useful in comparing different microhabitats within and between marshes. This method is most applicable to intertidal habitats with predictable lunar tides, including mud flats, mangrove swamps, and other wetlands.     

潮间带滩涂沉积物与水体热通量模拟

为了揭示滩涂对近岸水温影响,开展潮间带滩涂沉积物与海水之间热量交换研究。以韩国西南海岸的滩涂为例,建立滩涂沉积物温度模型,模拟不同潮汐状态下沉积物垂向剖面温度以及沉积物与水体间的热通量,并分析了季节、滩涂位置、潮位-太阳辐射相位对热通量的影响。研究表明:模拟出的沉积物温度与实测值吻合较好。沉积物与水体存在大量热量交换,且集中在淹没后的前3 h,最大热通量可达398.7 W/m2。冬季月份海水向滩涂净传热。夏季月份滩涂向水体净传热,且当滩涂淹没时刻发生在当地正午或正午过后3 h内,滩涂传递给水体的热量相对较大,达2.0 MJ/（m2·d）;累积热通量随滩涂干滩率的减小而减小。研究成果为进一步深入研究滩涂影响下近岸水温变化提供了技术支撑。     

Nutrient and metal accumulation in a freshwater tidal marsh

Stratigraphic records from sediment cores collected in a freshwater tidal marsh and in the estuary upstream and downstream from the marsh were used to determine the accumulation of nutrients and trace metals over long time periods. Analysis of pollen and seeds show that the high marsh has formed only within the past 100 yr, following increased sedimentation rates in the area. Variations in nutrient and trace metal accumulations over several decades show that pollutants from agricultural runoff and wastewater discharge are stored to a greater extent in high-marsh than in low-marsh sediments. Greater accumulation rates in the high marsh are probably related to its greater sedimentary organic carbon concentration.