Application of Artificial Intelligence to Maximum Dry Density and Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Soil

This paper describes two artificial intelligence techniques for prediction of maximum dry density (MDD) and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of cement stabilized soil. The first technique uses various artificial neural network (ANN) models such as Bayesian regularization method (BRNN), Levenberg- Marquardt algorithm (LMNN) and differential evolution algorithm (DENN). The second technique uses the support vector machine (SVM) that is firmly based on the theory of statistical learning theory, uses regression technique by introducing ε-insensitive loss function has been adopted. The inputs of both models are liquid limit (LL), plasticity index (PI), clay fraction (CF)%, sand (S)%, gravel Gr (%), moisture content (MC) and cement content (Ce). The sensitivity analyses of the input parameters have been also done for both models. Based on different statistical criteria the SVM models are found to be better than ANN models for the prediction of MDD and UCS of cement stabilized soil.     

Impact of Carpet Waste Fibre Addition on Swelling Properties of Compacted Clays

Municipalities and recycling and environmental authorities are concerned about the growing amount of carpet waste produced by household, commercial and industrial sectors. It is reported that 500,000 tonnes of carpet waste fibre are plunged into landfills annually in the UK. In the United States of America, around 10 million tonnes of textile waste was generated in 2003. In geotechnical engineering, expansive clay soils are categorised as problematic soils due to their swelling behaviour upon increase in the moisture content. The problematic nature of such soils is intensified with the increase in the plasticity index. This paper presents results of a comprehensive investigation into utilisation of carpet waste fibres in order to improve the swelling characteristics of compacted cohesive soils. Therefore, two different clay soils with markedly different plasticity indices (i.e. 17.0 and 31.5 %) were treated with two different types of carpet waste fibre. Waste fibres were added to prepare specimens with fibre content of 1, 3 and 5 % by dry weight of soil. Soil specimens with different dry unit weights and moisture contents were prepared so as to the swelling behaviour of fibre reinforced compacted clays is completely attained under various scenarios. The results indicated that the behaviour of the fibre reinforced soils seems highly dependent on the initial compaction state and secondary on the moisture content. It was found that the swelling pressure drops rapidly as the percentage of fibre increases in samples prepared at the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Reducing the dry unit weight, while maintaining constant moisture content or increasing the moisture content at constant dry unit weight was found to reduce the swelling pressure.     

The Influence of Placement Conditions on the Swelling of Variable Clays

The swelling of clay when it is subjected to moisture increase is a complicated process found to be influenced by several factors. The clay??s level of response is highly dependent on its mineralogical composition and structure. Practicing geotechnical engineers use the placement state and general index properties to forecast the swelling behavior of the soils. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of placement conditions on various clays and to demonstrate that the swelling of a particular clay type should not be predicted using information and trends obtained for other clays with different origins. Clay from Saudi Arabia was used to investigate the influence of initial moisture content and initial dry density on swelling. The prediction models created by other researchers were compared to the measured values in this study. The swelling behavior of both initially dry and wet prepared bentonite was examined, and the rate at which swelling developed in the bentonite clay was studied. The role of clay content in the volume change of sand?Cbentonite mixtures was also investigated. It was concluded that the prediction of clay-swelling parameters should not be based on the properties of other clays with different origins and mineralogical compositions. The trends published in the literature should be taken as a general guide only, and the influence of moisture content and dry density on swelling should be verified for individual sites. Because clay content significantly influences the overall volume change, it should be carefully assessed in each case.     

分散性土动剪切模量影响因素的试验研究

分散性土耐冲蚀性低、抗渗性能差,在纯水中具有很高的分散性,严重威胁水利工程的安全。在分散性土的鉴别和改性方面已有很多成果,但分散性土动力特性的研究见诸报端的还很少。利用日本诚研社生产的DTC-199型电液伺服加荷往复扭剪三轴仪,对取自宁夏某碾压均质土坝的分散性土的动剪切模量进行了探索。通过改变试样的含水率、干密度和围压等初始条件,研究分散性土在不同试验条件下的动力特性及剪切模量的变化规律,并进行对比分析。得出：分散性土的动剪应力-应变关系符合Hardin-Drnevich双曲线模型;控制初始条件,当其他条件相同时,含水率越低,动剪切模量越大;干密度越大,试样动剪切模量越大;围压越高,其动剪切模量越大;初始剪切模量及最大动剪应力的变化规律与之相似。动剪切模量随动剪切应变的增大普遍呈衰减趋势。     

膜孔灌溉下土壤入渗特征的多因素分析

为了研究土壤容重、初始含水率、压力水头、黏粒含量和入渗时间5个因素对膜孔灌自由入渗特性的影响,根据正交试验设计12组试验（9组试验,3组验证试验）。通过开展室内膜孔灌试验,研究了多因素交互对膜孔灌自由入渗单位膜孔面积累积入渗量、入渗率及平均体积含水率增量的影响,并分别建立了单位膜孔面积累积入渗量和湿润体内平均体积含水率增量与各影响因素之间的经验模型。两模型的均方根误差分别为0.032 cm、0.006 cm3/cm3,相关系数均大于0.97,决定系数均大于0.95（P<0.01）,经验证模型计算值与实测值相对误差均在±13%范围以内。研究表明:压力水头对单位膜孔面积累积入渗量影响不显著（P>0.05）,初始含水率对其影响显著（P<0.05）,而土壤容重、黏粒含量和入渗时间对其影响极显著（P<0.01）,其影响程度由大到小依次为入渗时间、黏粒含量、土壤容重和初始含水率;湿润体内平均体积含水率增量不受入渗时间影响,4个因素对其影响均极显著（P<0.01）,其影响程度由大到小依次为初始含水率、土壤容重、压力水头和黏粒含量。研究成果可为进一步优化膜孔灌灌水技术要素组合提供理论依据。     

Compaction characteristics of granular soils in United Arab Emirates

Most of the topsoils encountered in United Arab Emirates and in the Arabian Peninsula are granular soils with small percentages of silt and clay. Determination of the compaction characteristics of such soils is an essential task in preparing for construction work. The accumulating experience over many years of soil testing in our laboratories suggested that there exists an underlying trend that governs the compaction characteristics of such soils. As such, a study was undertaken to assess the compaction characteristics of such soils and to develop the governing predictive equations. For the purposes of this study, 311 soil samples were collected from various locations in the United Arab Emirates, and tested for various including grain-size distribution, liquid limit, plasticity index, specific gravity of soil solids, maximum dry density of compaction, and optimum moisture content following ASTM D 1557-91 standard procedure C. Following the development of the predictive equations, a new set of 43 soil samples were collected and their compaction results were used to test the validity of predictive model. The range of variables for these soils were as follows: percent retained on US sieve #4 (R#4): 0–68; Percent passing US sieve #200 (P#200): 1–26; Liquid limit: 0–56; Plasticity index: 0–28; Specific gravity of soil solids: 2.55–2.8. Based on the compaction tests results, multiple regression analyses were conducted to develop mathematical models and nomographic solutions to predict the compaction properties of soils. The results indicated that the nomographs could predict well the maximum dry density within ±5% confidence interval and the optimum moisture content within ±3%. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

分散性土的抗剪强度特性试验研究

分散性土是一种具有特殊工程性质的土,其典型的性质为抗渗性能差,耐冲蚀能力低,在纯水中具有很高的分散性。目前,人们对于分散性土的研究主要集中在鉴定、抗渗和改良等方面,而对其抗剪强度特性的研究很少。采用三轴CU试验研究不同初始条件下分散性土的抗剪强度特性。结果表明:分散性土的应力-应变曲线在小围压、低含水率和高干密度的状态下呈应变软化型,在围压较大、含水率较高的情况下呈弱硬化型或硬化型;黏聚力和内摩擦角均随含水率的增大而减小,并且干密度越大受水分影响越强烈;黏聚力随干密度的增大而增大,在低含水条件下,黏聚力的增幅较大,而在高含水条件下,黏聚力的增幅则较小;内摩擦角随干密度的增大有少量增大。     

Geo-engineering properties of expansive soil treated with xanthan gum biopolymer

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the effectiveness of xanthan gum (XG) biopolymer in stabilising the expansive soil. The XG biopolymer is mixed with expansive soil in different proportions such as 0%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 0.8% and 1.0% by weight of the dry soil mass. The plasticity, compaction, swelling, compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, strength and durability characteristics of the treated and un-treated expansive soil are examined. Results show that the plasticity index of the treated soil mass initially increases but beyond 0.5% biopolymer addition it decreases sharply. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of treated soil, found out from light and heavy compaction tests, do not follow any definite trend. It is also found that increasing XG content increases compressibility slightly but, it reduces swelling pressure, differential free swelling value and hydraulic conductivity remarkably. On the other hand, time-dependent compressive strength and resistance to mass loss increases with increasing XG content. Microscopic examination confirms the formation of gel-like linkage, which brings about the modifications in the treated expansive soil.     

Effect of lime and fly ash on swell,consolidation and shear strength characteristics of expansive clays: a comparative study

Expansive soils swell on absorbing water and shrink on evaporation thereof. Because of this alternate swelling and shrinkage, civil engineering structures founded in them are severely damaged. For counteracting the problems of expansive soils, different innovative techniques were suggested. Stabilization of expansive clays with various additives has also met with considerable success. This paper presents, by comparison, the effect of lime and fly ash on free swell index (FSI), swell potential, swelling pressure, coefficient of consolidation, compression index, secondary consolidation characteristics and shear strength. Lime content (weight of lime/weight of dry soil) was varied as 0%, 2%, 4%?and 6%?and fly ash content (weight of fly ash/weight of dry soil) as 0%, 10%?and 20%. A fly ash content of 20%?showed significant reduction in swell potential, swelling pressure, compression index and secondary consolidation characteristics and resulted in increase in maximum dry density and shear strength. Swell potential and swelling pressure decreased with increase in lime content also. Further, consolidation characteristics improved. Compaction characteristics and unconfined compression strength improved at 4%?lime and reduced at 6%?lime.     

Modification of physical, mechanical and hydraulic properties of bentonite by thermo-hydraulic gradients

The conditions of the bentonite in an engineered barrier for high-level radioactive waste disposal have been simulated in a series of tests. Cylindrical cells with an inner length of 60 cm and a diameter of 7 cm have been constructed. Inside the cells, six blocks of FEBEX bentonite have been piled-up, giving rise to a total length similar to the thickness of the clay barrier in a repository according to the Spanish concept. To obtain the blocks, the clay with its hygroscopic water content has been uniaxially compacted at a dry density of 1.65 g/cm³. The bottom surface of the material was heated at 100 °C and the top surface was injected with granitic water. The duration of the tests was 6, 12 and 24 months. The temperatures inside the clay and the water intake were measured during the tests and, at the end, the cells were dismounted and the dry density, water content and some hydro-mechanical properties of the clay (permeability, swelling pressure and swelling under load) were measured at different positions. The values obtained are compared to those of the untreated FEBEX bentonite. The injection of water provokes in the vicinity of the hydration surface an increase of the water content and a decrease of the dry density due to the swelling of the clay, while heating gives rise to an increase of the dry density and a reduction of the water content in the 18 cm closest to the heater, even after 2 years of thermo-hydraulic (TH) treatment. The swelling capacity and the hydraulic conductivity after TH treatment are mainly related to the dry density and water content attained during it. No major irreversible modifications of these properties with respect to those of the untreated clay have been detected.     

人工冻融土物理力学性能研究

研究了原状土与人工冻融土的密度、干密度、含水量、饱和度、孔隙比、塑限、液限、塑性指数、液性指数、渗透系数等物理指标, 以及抗剪强度、无侧限抗压强度、压缩模量等力学指标的差异性. 土冻融后, 密度、干密度及塑性指数略有降低, 孔隙比、液性指数略有增大, 而其它物理指标基本一致. 粘土冻融后, 渗透性大大增加, 为原状土的～10倍, 而砂土仅略有增大. 粘土冻融后无侧限抗压强度是原状土的1/～1/2, 灵敏度降低, 其结果对冻结法向市政岩土工程的应用推广具有重要意义.     

混合型缓冲回填材料膨胀力试验研究

与纯膨润土相比,混合型缓冲回填材料（膨润土与石英砂混合物）能够实现防渗阻隔能力、热传导性能、力学强度和可施工性能的最佳组合。选用高庙子钠基膨润土（GMZ001）为缓冲回填材料的主料,添加不同比例的石英砂,对掺砂比分别为0、10%、20%、30%、40%和50%的膨润土-砂混合物压实试样进行室内试验。结果表明,混合物的液限、塑限随掺砂率的增大而线性降低;膨胀力随时间呈指数增长。初始含水率较大时,最大膨胀力随初始含水率的增大略有降低。掺砂率一定时,最大膨胀力随初始干密度指数增长。提出了有效黏土密度的概念,建立了一定初始含水率条件下,任意掺砂率和初始干密度的高庙子膨润土-砂混合物最大膨胀力归一化模型,为混合型缓冲回填材料膨胀力的预测与控制提供了依据。     

A simple test and predictive models for assessing swell potential of Ankara (Turkey) Clay

During the past three decades, damage due to swelling action of Ankara Clay has been observed more clearly in some parts of Ankara where rapid expansion of the city led to the construction of various kinds of structures. In this study, a comprehensive research program has been conducted (i) to investigate the effect of remoulding and desiccation on the swelling behavior of Ankara Clay and its swelling anisotropy, (ii) to estimate depth of active zone, (iii) to develop a simple technique in determining the magnitude of swelling based on water content of the soaked specimen after 24 and 72 h (w_max24,72), and (iv) to produce predictive models which could be used to estimate the swelling potential of Ankara Clay from its mineralogical and simply measured engineering characteristics. A laboratory testing program was carried out using both undisturbed, and remoulded and desiccated samples selected from 20 different locations. Montmorillonite was identified as being the main clay mineral present. Based on the moisture content variation with depth, the active expansive zone was considered to be about 2 m. The test results suggest that swelling pressure of the clay considerably decreases and/or dies out when the water content is greater than 30%. It is also noted that the measured lateral swelling is significantly in excess of the vertical equivalent indicating an anisotropy with respect to swelling. Statistical assessments indicate that a new parameter (w_max24,72) from a simple test, suggested in this study, is a very strong parameter for predicting swelling parameters of Ankara Clay. Based on 60 empirical predictive equations with coefficients of correlation between 0.96 and 0.66 from multiple regression analyses, w_max24,72, methylene blue value, liquid limit, dry unit weight and smectite content are the most important index and mineralogical properties to predict the swelling parameters of Ankara clay with small deviations from the measured values.     

干密度与含水率对重塑红黏土抗剪强度参数影响研究

为探究了解桂林重塑红黏土抗剪强度特性,利用三轴试验研究饱和及未饱和重塑红黏土的干密度、含水率对土体抗剪强度的影响。试验结果表明:相同最优含水率下的饱和重塑红黏土的黏聚力与干密度的二次多项式拟合曲线呈凹状,未饱和土的黏聚力与干密度的二次多项式拟合曲线呈凸状,两者黏聚力曲线在1.41 g ·cm-3附近两者差值最大;饱和重塑红黏土的内摩擦角与干密度的二次多项式拟合曲线呈凹状,未饱和土的内摩擦角与干密度的二次多项式拟合曲线呈凸状,两者在干密度为1.35 g ·cm-3附近差值最大;未饱和重塑红黏土的含水率对抗剪强度参数影响显著。     

广西红粘土击实样强度特性与胀缩性能

通过对广西贵港红粘土重型击实样的室内试验研究,探讨了其力学特性、胀缩性能、孔径分布特征与含水量之间的关系。结果表明：干密度指标总体上能反映红粘土击实样的强度规律,但非饱和击实样强度峰值对应的含水量因基质吸力作用而偏小,饱和后土体由于吸水膨胀与基质吸力的消失,使得强度峰值对应含水量较饱和前明显增大,红粘土在最优含水量下压实,虽可获得很高的压实度,但饱和后的强度并非最大;红粘土击实样的胀缩性能主要由含水量决定,同时,受到干密度的影响;孔隙主要以孔径在0.01～0.05μm范围内的小孔隙为主,为进一步掌握红粘土的工程力学特性提供了帮助。     

重塑膨胀土三向膨胀变形试验研究

以广西宁明灰白重塑膨胀土为研究对象,运用自制膨胀土三向胀缩测试仪开展了不同初始含水率和三向压力的膨胀试验,研究了初始含水率和三向压力对胀限、三向膨胀率的影响规律。试验表明,三向等压时,竖向的膨胀率始终大于水平向膨胀率,比值为1.21～1.27,该比值与初始含水率、三向压力无关;三向膨胀时程均可以分为快速膨胀、缓慢膨胀和趋于稳定3个阶段;胀限与三向压力的对数线性相关,与初始含水率无关;相等初始含水率和干密度条件下,三向膨胀率均与三向压力的对数线性相关。     

弱膨胀土的膨胀特性试验研究

目前测量土体膨胀力的主要方法有膨胀反压法、加压膨胀法、平衡加压法和恒体积法。基于测量膨胀力的恒体积法,利用TST-55型渗透仪、高精度压力传感器和数采系统改进了测量土体膨胀力的装置,并研究了膨胀土的膨胀特性。试验结果表明,土样初始含水率和干密度对土体的极限膨胀力都有显著的影响,并建立了极限膨胀力与两者之间的关系式;较低初始含水率时,不同干密度的土样在膨胀力达到峰值之后,都有不同幅度的降低,随着干密度的增大而降低的越多,并且发现极限膨胀力降低值与干密度之间在双对数坐标轴上存在线性关系;而在较高初始含水率时,不同干密度的土样在膨胀力达到峰值之后,会保持平稳趋势。极限膨胀力的对数与初始含水率之间具有很好的线性关系,土样吸水量的对数与初始含水率以及干密度均有着很好的线性关系。     

广西红土击实特性的影响因素及机理分析

红土是由原岩在湿热气候条件下经过红土化作用形成的具有高含水率、大孔隙比、较高强度和较低压缩性的一种特殊土。由于其特殊的工程地质性质形成了红土具有较大工后沉降的特性。目前,工程中普遍采用强夯的地基处理方法对其进行处理,对于夯后红土地基变形则通过现场监测结合室内试验的方法进行研究。笔者通过室内击实试验和击实后红土的高压固结试验,深入探讨影响红土击实效果和击实后压实性的主要因素,并对各影响因素进行影响机理分析。试验结果表明：红土的击实效果与击实功成正比,与黏粒质量分数、塑性指数、游离氧化铁质量分数成反比;击实后红土的压缩模量受含水率、干密度及饱和度等因素的综合影响,并且各因素的影响程度不尽相同;当含水率大于18%时,土体处于近饱和状态,含水率与干密度已经不能反映饱和红土的压实性了,即在实际的强夯工程上这种土的含水率不宜大于18%,否则会产生较大的工后沉降。     

Reduction of Expansive Index,Swelling and Compression Behavior of Kaolinite and Bentonite Clay with Sand and Class C Fly Ash

Swelling behavior of expansive soil has always created problems in the field of geotechnical engineering. Generally, the method used to assess the swelling potential of expansive soil from its plasticity index, shrinkage limit and colloidal content. Alternative way to evaluate swelling behavior is from its expansive index (EI) and swelling pressure value. The present study investigates the reduction of EI and swelling pressure for kaolinite and bentonite clay when mixed with various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash used were 0–50 % by weight. The results show that there is a significant reduction in the swelling properties of expansive soil with the addition of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The reduction in EI ranged approximately from 10 to 50 and 4 to 49 % for kaolinite and bentonite clay, respectively. Also the maximum swelling pressure of kaolinite and bentonite clay decreased approximately 93 and 64 %, respectively with the addition of various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. Standard index properties test viz., liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage test were conducted to see the characteristics of expansive soil when mixed with less expansive sand and fly ash. Also, for these expansive soils one dimensional consolidation test have been conducted with sand and fly ash mixtures and the results were compared with pure kaolinite and bentonite clay.     

Swell pressure prediction by suction methods

Soil suction is the most relevant soil parameter for characterization of the swell behavior. An attempt was made to predict swell pressures from soil suction measurements. In this study, Na-bentonite was mixed with kaolinite in the ratios of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% of dry kaolinite weight to obtain soils in a wide range of plasticity indices (i.e. 30, 50, 68, 84 and 97%). Suction measurements using thermocouple psychrometer technique were made on statically compacted specimens. The dependence of soil suction on water content, dry density and bentonite content was examined. Soil suction was correlated to the soil properties, namely, water content, plasticity index, dry density, cation exchange capacity and specific surface area using multiple regression analyses. The correlations revealed a simple regression equation for a quick prediction of soil suctions from easily determined soil properties. In order to investigate soil suction versus swell pressure behavior, the results of standard constant volume swell tests (ASTM, 1990) performed on statically compacted samples of these clay mixtures were used. A linear relationship was established between the logarithm soil suction and the swell pressure. It was also found that an experimental relationship which would directly relate the initial soil suction to the swell pressure can be established.