Temperature and precipitation trends in Canada during the 20th century

Abstract

Trends in Canadian temperature and precipitation during the 20th century are analyzed using recently updated and adjusted station data. Six elements, maximum, minimum and mean temperatures along with diurnal temperature range (DTR), precipitation totals and ratio of snowfall to total precipitation are investigated. Anomalies from the 1961–1990 reference period were first obtained at individual stations, and were then used to generate gridded datasets for subsequent trend analyses. Trends were computed for 1900–1998 for southern Canada (south of 60°N), and separately for 1950–1998 for the entire country, due to insufficient data in the high arctic prior to the 1950s.

From 1900–1998, the annual mean temperature has increased between 0.5 and 1.5°C in the south. The warming is greater in minimum temperature than in maximum temperature in the first half of the century, resulting in a decrease of DTR. The greatest warming occurred in the west, with statistically significant increases mostly seen during spring and summer periods. Annual precipitation has also increased from 5% to 35% in southern Canada over the same period. In general, the ratio of snowfall to total precipitation has been increasing due mostly to the increase in winter precipitation which generally falls as snow and an increase of ratio in autumn. Negative trends were identified in some southern regions during spring. From 1950–1998, the pattern of temperature change is distinct: warming in the south and west and cooling in the northeast, with similar magnitudes in both maximum and minimum temperatures. This pattern is mostly evident in winter and spring. Across Canada, precipitation has increased by 5% to 35%, with significant negative trends found in southern regions during winter. Overall, the ratio of snowfall to total precipitation has increased, with significant negative trends occurring mostly in southern Canada during spring.

Indices of abnormal climate conditions are also examined. These indices were defined as areas of Canada for 1950–1998, or southern Canada for 1900–1998, with temperature or precipitation anomalies above the 66th or below the 34th percentiles in their relevant time series. These confirmed the above findings and showed that climate has been becoming gradually wetter and warmer in southern Canada throughout the entire century, and in all of Canada during the latter half of the century.     

Variations of the snow cover regime in the second half of the 20th century in Georgia

Possible relationships are studied between changes in major climate parameters (air and soil surface temperature, precipitation, and specific and relative humidity) and in regime characteristics of snow cover (duration of occurrence of snow cover and of stable snow cover, dates of their appearance and disappearance), with emphasis on Georgia.     

陕北地区不同时相TM遥感图像的镶嵌

利用山西省6个有代表性的气象观测站1951年～2000年的气温与降水资料，分析20世纪后半叶山西地区的气候变化，结果表明：山西地区气温呈上升趋势(0．26℃／10a)，特别是90年代增温十分明显，1999年是这50年来最暖的一年。以70年代中期为界，将山西分为冷、暖两个阶段，前期为冷期，后期为暖期。50年来降水量呈明显减少趋势(-15．1mm／10a)。     

Trends in dry spells across Catalonia (NE Spain) during the second half of the 20th century

Summary A spatiotemporal trend analysis of different magnitudes related to the number and length of the dry spells in Catalonia (NE Spain) has been conducted based on daily rainfall records taken from 40 rain gauges during the second half of the 20^th century. Dry spells have been computed for threshold levels of 0.1, 1, 5 and 10 mm/day at annual and semi-annual scales. The winter half-year is defined from October to March and the summer half-year from April to September. The magnitudes considered are the number, the maximum length and the mean length of the dry spells for every year and half-year. The spatial patterns of the average values of these magnitudes at the annual scale show a greater similarity with those of the summer half-year than with those of the winter half-year. A S–N or SW–NE gradient of the number of dry spells appears during the summer half-year for every threshold level. Trends of the analysed magnitudes are derived from linear regression and local statistical significances at the 95% confidence level are established using the Mann-Kendall test. Field significant trends are investigated by means of Monte Carlo simulations. The most relevant finding is that the number of dry spells per year depicts significant trends for the annual and winter-half series, with an overall decreasing trend for 5 and 10 mm/day thresholds. These observed trends are in agreement with changes in North Atlantic cyclone tracks and in Mediterranean Low dynamics, due to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations.     

Uncovering consistencies in Indian rainfall trends observed over the last half century

Food security in India is tightly linked to rainfall variability. Trends in Indian rainfall records have been extensively studied but the subject remains complicated by the high spatiotemporal variability of rainfall arising from complex atmospheric dynamics. For various reasons past studies have often produced inconsistent results. This paper presents an analysis of recent trends in monthly and seasonal cumulative rainfall depth, number of rainy days and maximum daily rainfall, and in the monsoon occurrence (onset, peak and retreat). A modified version of the Mann-Kendall test, accounting for the scaling effect, was applied to 29 variables derived from square-degree-resolution daily gridded rainfall (1951–2007). The mapping of gridded trend slopes and the regional average Kendall test were used concurrently to assess the field significance of regional trends in areas exhibiting spatial homogeneity in trend directions. The statistics we used account for temporal and spatial correlations, and thus reduce the risk of overestimating the significance of local and regional trends. Our results i/ improve available knowledge (e.g. 5 %-field-significant delay of the monsoon onset in Northern India); ii/ provide a solid statistical basis to previous qualitative observations (e.g. 1 %-field-significant increase/decrease in pre-monsoon rainfall depth in northeast/southwest India); and, iii/ when compared to recent studies, show that the field significance level of regional trends (e.g. in rainfall extremes) is test-dependent. General trend patterns were found to align well with the geography of anthropogenic atmospheric disturbances and their effect on rainfall, confirming the paramount role of global warming in recent rainfall changes.     

Anatomy of the synoptic conditions occurring over southern Greece during the second half of the 20th century. Part II. Autumn and spring

Summary ?A new procedure for grouping the circulation types occurring during autumn and spring over an area is introduced in this paper. The procedure combines surface air mass characteristics affecting the area with the prevailing synoptic conditions. Factor and Cluster Analysis are used to derive the circulation types, based on surface meteorological data, as well as on surface pressure grid data. The methods are applied to Athens, Greece, using data covering the period 1954–1999. Eight circulation types for the autumn (September, October, November) and eight for the spring (March, April, May) are derived. Clusters presenting low-pressure systems are found to be generally fast moving, while anticyclones generally remain over the area for more than two days. Finally an interesting seasonal distribution is found from some weather types. Received February 20, 2002; revised December 23, 2002; accepted January 9, 2003 Published online May 26, 2003     

Anatomy of the synoptic conditions occurring over southern Greece during the second half of the 20th century. Part I. Winter and summer

Summary ?In this study a methodology for grouping seasonal circulation types occurring over an area is introduced. This procedure combines the surface air mass characteristics affecting the area with the synoptic conditions prevailing over it. Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis are used to derive the circulation types, based on surface meteorological data and surface pressure grid data. The methods are applied to Athens, Greece, using data over the period 1954–1999 for winter (December, January, February) and summer (June, July, August) seasons. The daily circulation types are analyzed at surface level and their temporal evolution is examined via transition matrices. 315 grid points are used covering the area between 25° N to 60° N and 10° W to 40° E. This analysis derives 8 circulation types for the winter and 4 for the summer. A reduction in cyclonic activity and an increase in anticyclonic activity in the Central Mediterranean are detected in the late 1980s and early 1990s during the winter period. During summer the etesian winds and the local flows are dominant over Athens. Received February 20, 2002; accepted January 9, 2003 Published online May 26, 2003     

Climatic changes in Estonia during the second half of the 20th century in relationship with changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation

Summary Trends in the time series of air temperature, precipitation, snow cover duration and onset of climatic seasons at ten stations in Estonia during 1951–2000 are analysed. Using the conditional Mann-Kendall test, these trends are compared with trends in the characteristics of large-scale atmospheric circulation: the NAO and AO indices, frequency of circulation forms according to the Vangengeim-Girs’ classification, and the northern hemisphere teleconnection indices. The objective of the study is to estimate the influence of trends in circulation on climate changes in Estonia. Statistically significant increasing trends in air temperature are detected in January, February, March, April and May, in winter (DJF), spring (MAM) and in the cold period (NDJFM). The trends in precipitation, as a rule, differ from station to station. Increasing trends are present during the cold half-year – from October until March – and also in June. Snow cover duration has decreased in Estonia by 17–20 days inland and by 21–36 days on the coast. The onsets of early spring and spring have shifted to an earlier date. Some important changes have occurred in the parameters of atmospheric circulation during 1951–2000. Intensity of zonal circulation, i.e. westerlies, has increased during the cold period, especially in February and March. Results of the conditional Mann-Kendall test indicate that the intensification of westerlies in winter is significantly related to climate changes in winter and also in spring. A negative trend in the East Atlantic Jet (EJ) index, i.e. the weakening of the westerlies in May has caused warming during that month. Decrease in northerly circulation, i.e. in frequency of circulation form C and in East Atlantic/West Russia teleconnection index (EW) is related to an increase in precipitation in October.     

Snow contribution to springtime atmospheric predictability over the second half of the twentieth century

A set of global atmospheric simulations has been performed with the ARPEGE-Climat model in order to quantify the contribution of realistic snow conditions to seasonal atmospheric predictability in addition to that of a perfect sea surface temperature (SST) forcing. The focus is on the springtime boreal hemisphere where the combination of a significant snow cover variability and an increasing solar radiation favour the potential snow influence on the surface energy budget. The study covers the whole 1950?C2000 period through the use of an original snow mass reanalysis based on an off-line land surface model and possibly constrained by satellite snow cover observations. Two ensembles of 10-member AMIP-type experiments have been first performed with relaxed versus free snow boundary conditions. The nudging towards the monthly snow mass reanalysis significantly improves both potential and actual predictability of springtime surface air temperature over Central Europe and North America. Yet, the impact is confined to the lower troposphere and there is no clear improvement in the predictability of the large-scale atmospheric circulation. Further constraining the prescribed snow boundary conditions with satellite observations does not change much the results. Finally, using the snow reanalysis only for initializing the model on March 1st also leads to a positive impact on predicted low-level temperatures but with a weaker amplitude and persistence. A conditional skill approach as well as some selected case studies provide some guidelines for interpreting these results and suggest that an underestimated snow cover variability and a misrepresentation of ENSO teleconnections may hamper the benefit of an improved snow initialization in the ARPEGE-Climat model.     

Changes of Air–sea Coupling in the North Atlantic over the 20th Century

Changes of air–sea coupling in the North Atlantic Ocean over the 20 th century are investigated using reanalysis data,climate model simulations, and observational data. It is found that the ocean-to-atmosphere feedback over the North Atlantic is significantly intensified in the second half of the 20 th century. This coupled feedback is characterized by the association between the summer North Atlantic Horseshoe(NAH) SST anomalies and the following winter North Atlantic Oscillation(NAO). The intensification is likely associated with the enhancement of the North Atlantic storm tracks as well as the NAH SST anomalies. Our study also reveals that most IPCC AR4 climate models fail to capture the observed NAO/NAH coupled feedback.     

The 20th century cooling trend over the southeastern United States

Portions of the southern and southeastern United States, primarily Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, have experienced century-long (1895–2007) downward air temperature trends that occur in all seasons. Superimposed on them are shifts in mean temperatures on decadal scales characterized by alternating warm (1930s–1940s, 1990s) and cold (1900s; 1960s–1970s) regimes. Regional atmospheric circulation and SST teleconnection indices, station-based cloud cover and soil moisture (Palmer drought severity index) data are used in stepwise multiple linear regression models. These models identify predictors linked to observed winter, summer, and annual Southeastern air temperature variability, the observed variance (r²) they explain, and the resulting prediction and residual time series. Long-term variations and trends in tropical Pacific sea temperatures, cloud cover, soil moisture and the North Atlantic and Arctic oscillations account for much of the air temperature downtrends. Soil moisture and cloud cover are the primary predictors of 59.6 % of the observed summer temperature variance. While the teleconnections, cloud cover and moisture data account for some of the annual and summer Southeastern cooling trend, large significant downward trending residuals remain in winter and summer. Comparison is made to the northeastern United States where large twentieth century upward air temperature trends are driven by cloud cover increases and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) variability. Differences between the Northeastern warming and the Southeastern cooling trends in summer are attributable in part to the differing roles of cloud cover, soil moisture, the Arctic Oscillation and the AMO on air temperatures of the 2 regions.     

20世纪四川盆地降水变化特征分析

根据旱涝史料和现代气象观测资料，利用自适应读分辨滤 波器 和Mann-Kendall方法，分析了20世纪四川盆地不同区域降水变化的阶段性、趋势性和突变性 。     

20世纪四川盆地降水变化特征分析

根据旱涝史料和现代气象观测资料，利用自适应读分辨滤波器和Mann-Kendall方法，分析了20世纪四川盆地不同区域降水变化的阶段性、趋势性和突变性。     

Sediment runoff formation trends of major tributaries of Lake Baikal in the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century

Presented are the results of the analysis of sediment runoff variations of main tributaries of Lake Baikal in the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century. It is revealed that the sediment runoff decrease has been observed in the tributaries since the second half of the 1970s. Considered are the reasons for such trend being peculiar in different areas of the lake basin.     

绍兴市近49 a降水和旱涝变化特征分析

利用1961—2015年夏季(5—8月)湖南89个台站的逐月降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、海温资料,计算了湖南近55 a的旱涝急转指数(LDFAI),挑选出湖南夏季旱涝急转(旱转涝和涝转旱两种类型)异常年,分析了异常年的同期大尺度环流和前期海温的基本特征,结果表明：(1)旱转涝年,旱期对流层中层鄂霍次克海有阻塞高压,副高偏西偏南,湖南受中纬度偏西气流控制,南亚高压较常年整体偏北偏强,湖南上空伴随着下沉运动加强,水汽辐散,致使湖南少雨干旱;涝期副高较同期偏南,湖南受中纬度低槽和副高共同影响,南亚高压北移,东伸脊点位于川渝交界附近,且高压中心呈青藏高压模态,湖南上空伴随着强烈的上升运动和水汽汇合,导致湖南降水增多。(2)涝转旱年,涝期副高较常年偏东,冷暖空气交汇在湖南地区,南亚高压整体较常年偏南偏弱,湖南上空伴随着上升运动和水汽汇合,湖南偏涝;旱期副高较常年偏西,湖南受副高控制,此时南亚高压主体偏强偏东,东伸脊点位于湖北一带,高压中心呈伊朗高压模态,加上湖南上空下沉运动和水汽输送辐散异常偏强,干旱少雨。(3) LDFAI指数与前期(前一年夏、秋、冬季和当年春季)太平洋相关海区海温存在显著相关性,这为湖南夏季旱涝急转类型的预测提供了参考信号。

     

极端降水事件变化的观测研究

利用湖北1961—2014年站点逐日降水资料及人口和人口城乡构成数据,通过平均值分离、最小二乘法拟合、趋势系数和气候倾向率分析、M-K检验和累积距平检验等方法,从时空分布、趋势变化、局地特征等方面,分析了近54 a湖北极端降水的变化特征及其与城市化的关系,结果表明：(1)对于第95百分位的极端降水事件,湖北极端降水阈值的范围为43.5~85.1 mm,大部分站的阈值在暴雨雨量范围,高阈值区位于江汉平原和鄂东,低阈值区位于鄂西北,最高阈值出现在武汉站,最低阈值出现在竹山站和房县站。(2)近54 a来湖北多年平均的极端降水日(D_ep)、极端降水量(P_ep)、极端降水强度(I_ep)、最大5 d降水(R_{5 d})和雨量比均存在明显的区域特征,但I_ep、R_{5 d}的地域差异不如D_ep、P_ep明显。鄂西南南部以及鄂东南东部和南部是极端降水事件的高发区,鄂西北北部是极端降水事件的低发区。(3)极端降水指数(R)能反映极端降水的强弱,其大尺度存在明显的年际差异,而长期变化趋势不显著,P_ep、I_ep和雨量比呈弱增加趋势,R_{5 d}和极端降水频数呈弱减少趋势。(4)城市化发展速度会改变R及其局地距平百分比DR_ij、趋势系数和气候倾向率的空间分布。随着城市化发展速度加快,湖北城市“雨岛效应”的格局发生了变化,D_ep、P_ep、I_ep、R_{5 d}及其DR_ij从南北差异明显变为东西差异明显,江汉平原和鄂东的D_ep、P_ep、I_ep、R_{5 d}增加,而鄂西南的减少,且四者趋势系数通过显著性水平检验的站点数更多,气候倾向率绝对值也普遍增大,但大部分站点的变化趋势为负值。(5)湖北极端降水具有明显的城市效应,城市化发展速度较快的大城市代表站的极端降水阈值大于配对的小城市代表站,两种代表站平均的D_ep、P_ep、I_ep、R_{5 d}的年际变化较一致,但大城市代表站的I_ep、R_{5 d}普遍较大,极端降水的变化趋势更明显。