Estimation of rock engineering properties using hardness tests

In engineering projects such as tunnels, dams, foundations, and slope stability, the strength and elastic properties of the intact rock affect both the project design and the construction operation. It is sometimes expensive and time consuming to perform direct tests to evaluate the engineering properties (such as strength, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio) of the intact rock. The purpose of this work is to investigate the relationships between the engineering properties of the intact rock and the different types of hardness (Schmidt, shore scleroscope, abrasion, and total hardness), which are relatively cheap and easy to evaluate. In this study, dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and shale rocks were used. For simplicity, linear statistical analyses were performed. The results show that there are good relationships between the engineering properties of the intact rock and its hardness. Also, the results of this study are compared well with the results obtained by other investigators conducted on different types of rocks.     

Sound level produced during rock drilling vis-à-vis rock properties

The process of drilling, in general, always produces sound. Though sound is used as a diagnostic tool in mechanical industry, its application in predicting rock property is not much explored. In this study, an attempt has been made to estimate rock properties such as uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt rebound number and Young's modulus using sound level produced during rotary drilling. For this purpose, a computer numerical controlled vertical milling centre was used for drilling holes with drill bit diameters ranging from 6 to 20 mm with a shank length of 40 mm. Fourteen different rock types were tested. The study was carried out to develop the empirical relations using multiple regression analysis between sound level produced during drilling and rock properties considering the effects of drill bit diameter, drill bit speed and drill bit penetration rate. The F-test was used to check the validity of the developed models. The measured rock property values and the values calculated from the developed regression model are fairly close, indicating that the developed models could be efficiently used with acceptable accuracy in prediction of rock properties.     

The Schmidt hammer in rock material characterization

The Schmidt hammer provides a quick and inexpensive measure of surface hardness that is widely used for estimating the mechanical properties of rock material. However, a number of issues such as hammer type, normalization of rebound values, specimen dimensions, surface smoothness, weathering and moisture content, and testing, data reduction and analysis procedures continue to influence the consistency and reliability of the Schmidt hammer test results. This paper presents: a) a critical review of these basic issues; and b) the results of tests conducted on granitic rocks of various weathering grades in the light of the conclusions of this review. It was found that a very good correlation exists between L and N hammer rebound values and that both hammers are fairly sensitive to the physical properties, particularly to dry density though less so to effective and total porosities. The N hammer, producing a lesser scatter in the data, proved to be more efficient than the L hammer in predicting uniaxial compressive strength and Young's modulus. The exponential form of the correlation curves was found to reflect microstructural changes during the course of weathering and the differences in the probing scales or mechanisms in the means of measuring these mechanical properties, and could be generalized to other crystalline igneous rocks. The possibility of predicting weathering grades from rebound values was also explored. The changes in the rebound values during multiple impacts at a given point produced a better indication of the weathering grade than a single impact value. It was concluded that increasing the impact energy and plunger tip diameter should significantly reduce the scatter in coarse-grained weathered rocks and hence improve the reliability of the Schmidt hammer as a rock material characterization tool.     

An investigation of the relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and degradation for selected rock types

The relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and degradation was investigated for selected rock types, by using regression analyses to determine whether degradation was a useful predictor of compressive strength. In addition, the effects of aggregate particle size, number of hammer blows during the degradation test, engineering index properties, petrographic characteristics, and water saturation on the compressive strength-degradation relationship were evaluated. The results show that strong inverse relationships exist between compressive strength and degradation (measured on a 9.5-4.75-mm size aggregate) for sandstones and igneous/metamorphic rocks, but that no significant relationship exists for limestones/dolomites. The results also indicate a strong positive correlation between degradation and L.A. abrasion loss and can be used to establish a limit of allowable degradation for practical applications. Engineering index properties do not significantly affect the relationship between compressive strength and degradation but petrographic characteristics are important in explaining the strength and degradation behavior of the rocks studied. Water saturation decreases compressive strength and increases degradation to varying degrees.     

Correlation of Schmidt hardness with unconfined compressive strength and Young''s modulus in gypsum from Sivas (Turkey)

This study aims to express the relationships between Schmidt rebound number (N) with unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Young's modulus (E_t) of the gypsum by empirical equations. As known, the Schmidt hammer has been used worldwide as an index test for a quick rock strength and deformability characterisation due to its rapidity and easiness in execution, simplicity, portability, low cost and nondestructiveness. In this study, gypsum samples have been collected from various locations in the Miocene-aged gypsum of Sivas Basin and tested. The tests include the determination of Schmidt hammer rebound number (N), tangent Young's modulus (E_t) and unconfined compressive strength. Finally, obtained parameters were correlated and regression equations were established among Schmidt hammer rebound hardness, tangent Young's modulus and unconfined compressive strength, presenting high coefficients of correlation. It appears that there is a possibility of estimating unconfined compressive strength and Young's modulus of gypsum, from their Schmidt hammer rebound number by using the proposed empirical relationships of UCS=exp(0.818+0.059N) and E_t=exp(1.146+0.054N). However, the equations must be used only for the gypsum with an acceptable accuracy, especially at the preliminary stage of designing a structure. Finally, by using the obtained Schmidt hammer rebound number from this study, unconfined compressive strength was calculated and compared with the calculated value from different empirical equations proposed by different authors. It can be said that it is impossible to obtain only one relation for all types of the rocks.     

The porosity and engineering properties of vesicular basalt in Saudi Arabia

The presence of non-connected vesicles in extensive basalt flows in western Saudi Arabia greatly affects their engineering properties such as compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio and sonic velocities. In order to evaluate some of these properties, the density and/or the porosity of the material must be known. Using conventional methods to determine the porosity or the density of irregular lumps proved to be erroneous. An image analysis technique is suggested to estimate the porosity of the vesicular basalt. The estimated values were correlated against the calculated porosity values using core samples, and were found to have excellent correlation (R=0.99). The estimated porosity values were also correlated against the static and dynamic properties of the basalt and a good level of correlation (R=0.77) was obtained.     

Geomechanical characterisation of rock masses in Alpine regions: the Basque Arc (Basque-Cantabrian basin, Northern Spain)

The geomechanical characterisation of rock masses in Alpine regions is one of the main challenges currently facing rock mechanics. These rock masses, made up of very different materials and frequently tectonically disturbed, are affected by engineering works, giving rise to potentially important problems. Thus, in the Basque Country, these materials are at the cause of important fatalities occurring in recent years. In this context, we aim at characterising these materials with the ultimate purpose of predicting their behaviour. The characterisation is initially approached based on the GSI, m_i and σ_ci parameters, following the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. This information is supplemented with field and laboratory measurements, and by obtaining the RQD and RMR indices. Using the information obtained from 99 metering stations, we develop a graphic classification procedure, which allows us to distinguish materials based on their characteristics, behaviour, type and degree of associated problems, and type and effectiveness of solutions provided. Eight classes of material are established.     

Prediction of uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones using petrography-based models

The uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock is the main parameter used in almost all engineering projects. The uniaxial compressive strength test requires high quality core samples of regular geometry. The standard cores cannot always be extracted from weak, highly fractured, thinly bedded, foliated and/or block-in-matrix rocks. For this reason, the simple prediction models become attractive for engineering geologists. Although, the sandstone is one of the most abundant rock type, a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones does not exist in the literature. The main purposes of the study are to investigate the relationships between strength and petrographical properties of sandstones, to construct a database as large as possible, to perform a logical parameter selection routine, to discuss the key petrographical parameters governing the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones and to develop a general prediction model for the uniaxial compressive strength of sandstones. During the analyses, a total of 138 cases including uniaxial compressive strength and petrographic properties were employed. Independent variables for the multiple prediction model were selected as quartz content, packing density and concavo–convex type grain contact. Using these independent variables, two different prediction models such as multiple regression and ANN were developed. Also, a routine for the selection of the best prediction model was proposed in the study. The constructed models were checked by using various prediction performance indices. Consequently, it is possible to say that the constructed models can be used for practical purposes.     

共面闭合断续节理岩体强度特性直剪试验研究

为了揭示不同裂纹贯通模式的细观演化机理,采用颗粒流程序(PFC)模拟含平行双裂隙石膏试样的单轴压缩试验。对双预制裂隙在不同相对位置时试样内出现的裂纹贯通模式进行分类,并对不同贯通模式形成过程中预制裂隙周围的力链和颗粒位移场进行分析。研究发现预制裂隙的相对位置会改变压缩过程中其周围的接触力分布以及颗粒位移趋势,进而影响预制裂隙端部以及岩桥区域裂纹的扩展路径。当两预制裂隙几乎共面时,在岩桥区域存在接触力集中情况,岩桥区域首先出现微张拉裂纹,随着加载,这些微张拉裂纹逐渐演化为宏观剪切带并连接两个预制裂隙端点,形成Ⅰ型贯通。当岩桥倾角较大且两个预制裂隙不重叠时,岩桥区域的接触力集中程度增大,岩桥区域首先出现竖向的微张拉裂纹并演化为竖向的宏观裂纹连接两个预制裂隙端点,导致Ⅱ或Ⅶb型贯通。当两个预制裂隙的端部部分重叠时,由于应力屏蔽效应,重叠端部的压缩接触力集中程度小于未重叠端部,导致翼裂纹成为主导贯通的裂纹。当两个预制裂隙在竖直方向完全重叠时,两预制裂隙同侧端点之间的接触力集中导致出现由压致拉的张拉裂纹连接预制裂隙同侧端点,形成Ⅴ型贯通。出现Ⅱ、Ⅴ和Ⅶb型贯通试样的微裂纹数量曲线呈现阶梯状增长的趋势,表明这3类贯通中宏观裂纹的扩展是由应变能的突然释放导致的。     

基于DPM系统的风化岩软弱区定位以及性质描述

隧道超前钻探测试是获取掌子面前方地质情况的重要手段,钻进参数与岩体性质具有一定的相关性。本文为了探究超前钻探中的钻进参数与不同岩体强度之间的响应关系,建立能定量表征岩体单轴抗压强度的数学模型,利用安装有钻进智能感知系统的ZS-100型钻孔取样机对不同强度等级的水泥砂浆试样进行钻孔试验。试验过程中对两组试样分别设置不同的钻头转速(300 r·min^-1、400 r·min^-1),监测钻进过程中钻进扭矩、钻进压力、钻进速率等随钻参数的变化趋势,研究结果表明：钻机智能感知系统在钻孔过程中监测到的随钻参数在钻进准备阶段、钻进岩样阶段和提升钻头阶段3个阶段均有明显的响应特征;随钻参数的响应情况与试样的强度等级相关性高,水泥砂浆强度等级越高,钻进过程中钻头受到的扭矩和钻进压力越大,钻进速率越慢;钻取的岩芯与随钻参数的变化情况高度匹配,表明钻进智能感知系统监测结果精准性高;通过将测试结果进行单轴抗压强度预测模型反演,发现扭矩、钻进压力、钻进速率3个参数与单轴抗压强度之间存在明显的指数函数关系,证实了钻进智能感知系统的实用性和有效性,为岩石单轴抗压强度预测和超前智能钻探设备的应用提供科学的参考依据。     

砾状煤系土改良性能的试验研究

针对广梧高速公路沿线的砾状煤系土不能满足路基填料要求的问题,采用室内试验的方法,对其提出了分别掺加生石灰和水泥两种改良方案并进行改良试验对比研究。研究结果表明：经水泥改良后的砾状煤系土的压实性能、承载比和水稳性等方面效果明显优于经石灰改良的;经水泥改良后的抗剪性能、无侧限抗压强度和抗变形能力均有较大程度的提高;在影响砾状煤系土强度的因素中,水泥掺入比的影响最显著,其次是龄期和含水率,并根据无侧限抗压强度试验结果提出了多因素影响拟合公式。砾状煤系土掺加约3%水泥改良后直接作为路基填料可满足要求,为煤系土地区路基处理提供借鉴依据。     

基于正交试验的不同胶结强度Bimrock岩体力学特性试验研究

Bimrock在不同胶结强度下的力学特性鲜有研究,而胶结强度对Bimrock力学特性和变形破坏特征有着重要影响。为探究不同胶结强度对Bimrock力学特性的影响规律,通过正交试验设计法,开展Bimrock基质配比试验,对不同配比基质试样的强度力学参数进行参数敏感性分析,基于正交试验结果,制作不同胶结强度的Bimrock试样,通过单轴压缩试验,分析不同胶结强度对Bimrock力学特性的影响。结果表明：Bimrock试样的单轴抗压强度和弹性模量与其胶结强度呈正相关,从弱胶结到强胶结,单轴抗压强度从11.02 MPa增加到34.21 MPa,弹性模量从2.11 GPa增加到5.57 GPa;随着胶结强度的增加,试样在变形至破坏的各阶段表面裂纹数量均减少;强胶结试样的压缩破坏模式表现为单条主裂纹的贯通破坏,破坏时间较短,脆性破坏明显;中等胶结试样发生整体与局部剪切破坏,表现为一条明显贯穿整个试样和一条仅贯穿试样下半部分的剪切破坏面;弱胶结试样发生横向拉张破坏,可见多条沿竖直方向的张拉裂纹,局部出现张剪破坏并存的破坏特征,从变形到破坏产生的裂纹较多且较为破碎,破坏时间相对较长。Bimrock岩体工程问题复杂而且较难处理,针对Bimrock力学特性与变形破坏特征的研究对工程建设以及地质灾害防治有重要意义。     

岩石力学性质的应变率效应试验

以玄武岩为试样,开展了中低应变率下的岩石单轴抗压试验。本次研究分析应变率对岩石抗压强度、弹性模量、泊松比等力学参数的影响,分别提出了岩石抗压强度、弹性模量、泊松比等参数与应变率之间的拟合关系式。以峰值应力对应的应变和峰值后的软化模量为脆性评价指标,分析加载应变率对岩石脆性的影响。研究表明:(1)岩石抗压强度、弹性模量均随应变率的增加而增加。(2)岩石泊松比随应变率增加而减小。(3)随着应变率增加大,峰值应力对应的应变增大,峰值后的应变软化程度减小,岩石脆性减弱。(4)应变率对岩石抗压强度影响较大,对弹性模量和泊松比的影响较小。(5)曲线拟合效果良好,提出的拟合关系式合理。     

岩石结构面注浆加固抗剪特性试验研究

为了研究破裂岩体结构面的注浆加固效果,并揭示其加固实质和作用机制,对单轴压缩试验形成的破裂岩样结构面粗糙度进行了测量与研究;通过破裂岩样结构面注浆加固的剪切试验,分析了注浆对结构面强度和刚度等力学特性参数的影响;通过锯齿形模型化结构面注浆前后剪切试验,分析了锯齿形结构面的力学特性及注浆加固对模型化结构面的影响。研究结果表明,同种岩样压裂后结构面粗糙度系数JRC相近,其数值约为8～10,具有可复制性;注浆后结构面残余强度、剪切峰值强度及上升段斜率均有明显提高;注浆后岩体中结构面的刚度也得到了明显改善;通过理论分析,给出了结构面刚度的理论拟合公式;结构面的剪切峰值强度及残余强度随着锯齿形齿数的增多明显提高,注浆加固后,结构面剪切峰值强度、黏聚力都有不同程度的增大,而内摩擦角变化不大     

凤滩电厂近坝库区边坡岩体力学性质试验研究

通过室内岩石力学性质、节理岩样剪切强度试验及现场岩体结构面推剪试验研究,对凤滩电厂近坝库区4个边坡岩体的强度和变形特性进行了分析,取得了边坡岩体力学性质基本参数。为边坡稳定性分析及工程设计提供了可靠依据。     

基于黄土物理化学性质变化的固化土强度影响因素分析

基于黄河中游地区黄土自西北向东南分布变化的规律,研究黄土的物理化学性质和矿物成分对水泥基土壤固化剂固化土无侧限抗压强度的影响。试验结果表明：随着黏粒含量的增加,固化土的强度先降低后增加,其中黏粒含量17.0%是分界点;随着碱度的增加,固化土的强度增加;蒙脱石的加固效果好于伊利石,在以伊利石为主的土中,随着伊利石含量的增加,固化土的强度升高;随着阳离子交换总量的增加和交换性钠离子百分比的降低,固化土的强度增加。研究表明,黄土的物理化学性质不同是水泥基土壤固化剂土质适宜性产生的主要原因;黄河中游地区自西北向东南加固土的强度具有增大的规律性     

水泥土芯样强度变形特性及本构关系试验研究

为了研究现场施工工艺下水泥土的强度及变形特性,对水泥搅拌桩钻孔芯样进行了无侧限抗压强度试验与三轴试验,分析了水泥掺量与围压对水泥土芯样强度、变形特性的影响规律。结果表明：随着水泥掺量的提高,水泥土芯样的强度明显增强,变形模量显著增大,但其破坏应变变小,脆性增大;水泥掺量超过18%的水泥土芯样其应力-应变关系表现为软化型,随着围压的提高,其强度增强,破坏应变增大,脆性降低,且应力-应变关系曲线有可能发生转型;不同围压下的水泥土芯样三轴试验先为体缩,后变化为体胀,发生剪胀的应变较破坏应变略小,是由剪切面上颗粒错动引起的,在颗粒错动达到一定程度后抗剪强度才发挥到峰值;水泥土的结构屈服应力比较大,在围压的作用下其胶结结构未发生破损,强度包线满足摩尔-库仑线性强度规律;根据水泥土的强度变形特征,应力-应变全曲线分弹性、塑性、软化3个阶段,可采用Popovics模型对其进行模拟,与试验结果较为吻合。     

Regional evaluation of hydraulic properties in variably fractured rock using a hydrostructural domain approach

A hydrostructural domain approach was tested and validated in fractured bedrock aquifers of the Gulf Islands, British Columbia (BC), Canada. Relative potential hydraulic properties for three hydrostructural domains in folded and faulted sedimentary rocks were derived using stochastically generated fracture data and hybrid discrete fracture network-equivalent porous media (DFN-EPM) modelling. Model-derived relative potential transmissivity values show good spatial agreement with transmissivity values obtained from pumping tests at selected sites. A spatial pattern of increasing transmissivity towards the southeast along the island chain is consistent between both datasets. Cluster analysis on relative potential permeability values obtained from a larger dataset for the region identified four clusters with geometric means of 9?×?10^?13, 4?×?10^?13, 2?×?10^–13, and 3?×?10^–14 m². The general trend is an increase in relative potential permeability toward the southeast, emulating the trends identified in the site-specific analyses. Relative potential permeability values increase with proximity to the hinge line of a regional northwest-trending asymmetric fault propagation fold structure, and with proximity to superimposed high-angle north- and northeast-trending brittle faults. The results are consistent with documented patterns of structurally controlled fluid flow and show promise for use in regional characterization of fractured bedrock aquifers.