Gas hydrates from the continental slope,offshore Sakhalin Island,Okhotsk Sea

Ten gas-vent fields were discovered in the Okhotsk Sea on the northeast continental slope offshore from Sakhalin Island in water depths of 620—1040 m. At one vent field, estimated to be more than 250 m across, gas hydrates, containing mainly microbial methane (¹³C = –64.3), were recovered from subbottom depths of 0.3–1.2 m. The sediment, having lenses and bedded layers of gas hydrate, contained 30–40% hydrate per volume of wet sediment. Although gas hydrates were not recovered at other fields, geochemical and thermal measurements suggest that gas hydrates are present.     

Mud volcanoes and gas vents in the Okhotsk Sea area

Gas emissions from mud volcanoes on Sakhalin Island and water-column gas flares arising from cold seeps in the Okhotsk Sea appear to be related. They are likely activated by tectonic movements along the transform plate boundary separating the Okhotsk Sea Plate from the Eurasian and Amur plates. Gas vents (flares) and methane anomalies occur in the waters offshore Sakhalin Island, along with NE-SW-trending mounds and fluid escape structures on the seafloor. The intersection of the NE-striking transverse faults on land with the Central Sakhalin and Hokkaido-Sakhalin shear zones apparently determines the sites of mud volcanoes, a pattern that continues offshore where the intersection with the East Sakhalin and West Derugin shear zones determines the sites of the submarine gas vents.     

Geochemistry of gas hydrate accumulation offshore NE Sakhalin Island (the Sea of Okhotsk): results from the KOMEX-2002 cruise

Geochemical properties of gas hydrate accumulation associated with an active gas vent on the continental slope offshore northeast Sakhalin Island in the Sea of Okhotsk have been investigated. The pore water chemistry data suggest that the gas hydrates (GHs) were formed in an environment of upward-migrating fluid combined with a mechanism of pore water segregation. The upward infiltration of water enriched mainly by Cl^– and K⁺ species appears to occur on the background of earlier diagenesis processes within the gas vent sediments. The GHs were formed from water with chlorinity ranging from 530 to 570 mM. The ¹⁸O and D of GH water varied from –1.4 to –1.8 and from –13 to –18, respectively, representing a mix of seawater and infiltrating fluid water. A complex interaction of pore water, water of ascending fluid and segregated pore water during hydrate formation is also supported by water content measurements and observed gas hydrate structure. The direction of segregated water is opposite to upward fluid migration. Decreasing activity of the gas vent is inferred by comparing the present top of the recovered hydrate layer with previous observations.     

Tritium in the northwestern North Pacific

Vertical profiles of tritium in seawater were determined for samples collected during the period from 1988 to 1990 at fourteen stations in the northwestern North Pacific (the Oyashio region) including the Okhotsk Sea and the Bering Sea. The profiles usually had a maximum in the surface layer and decreased gradually with depth down to 1,000 m. The water column inventory of tritium averaged 63% of the total atmospheric input in this region.The horizontal distribution of tritium showed a maximum in the region facing the Okhotsk Sea near 45°N for every isopycnal surface of ₀ ranging from 26.60 to 27.40. The ages of the intermediate water were calculated for the respective isopycnal surfaces in the maximum region. This calculation assumed that the intermediate water was formed by the isopycnal mixing of two water masses—the Okhotsk Sea and the Bering Sea Component Waters, which had been produced in wintertime by the diapycnal mixing of the surface and the deep waters in the respective marginal seas. The results show that the intermediate water in this region was formed in the late 1980's for the water which has ₀ of 26.60 to 26.80 and about 1970 for the water which has ₀ of 27.00 to 27.40. Although we have estimated the mean ages of the intermediate water, the horizontal profile of dissolved oxygen suggests that the Okhotsk Sea Component Water is younger than the mean age.     

Excess CO2 and pHexcess in the Intermediate Water Layer of the Northwestern Pacific

Excess CO₂ and pH_excess showing an increase in dissolved inorganic carbon and a decrease in pH from the beginning of the industrial epoch (middle of the 19th century) until the present time have been calculated in the intermediate water layer of the northwestern Pacific and the Okhotsk Sea. It is concluded that: (1) The Kuril Basin (Okhotsk Sea) and the Bussol' Strait areas are characterized by the greatest concentrations of excess CO₂ at isopycnal surfaces due to the processes of formation and transformation of intermediate water mass. (2) The largest difference in excess CO₂ concentration between the Okhotsk Sea and the western subarctic Pacific (about 8 µmol/kg) is found at the = 27.0. (3) The difference in excess CO₂ between the western subarctic Pacific and subtropical regions is significant only in the upper part of the intermediate water layer ( = 26.7–27.0). (4) About 10% of the excess CO₂ accumulation in the subtropical north Pacific is determined by water exchange with the subarctic Pacific and the Okhotsk Sea.     

Methane in the East China Sea water

Methane in the East China Sea water was determined four times at a fixed vertical section along PN line consisting of 11–14 stations, in February 1993, October 1993, June 1994 and August 1994. The mean concentration of methane in the surface water was not significantly higher than that in the open ocean. The methane concentration below the pycnocline increased during the stratified period in summer to autumn and reached to 15 nmoles/l at most in October. The concentration of methane was fairly well correlated with AOU in the layer below the pycnocline in the stratified season. This means that methane in the bottom water has only a single source, which is expected to be anoxic sediments near the coast, and that the oxidation rate of methane in the water is extremely slow in the oxic water. The high methane observed in October completely disappeared in February, indicating that the methane was escaped to the atmosphere or transported to the pelagic ocean by the Kuroshio current. The East China Sea, therefore, is not a large direct and stationary source for the atmospheric methane, but may have some role as a source by supplying it sporadically to the atmosphere in early winter or indirectly from the surface of the pelagic ocean.     

Distribution and expression of gas seeps in a gas hydrate province of the northeastern Sakhalin continental slope, Sea of Okhotsk

Multidisciplinary surveys were conducted to investigate gas seepage and gas hydrate accumulation on the northeastern Sakhalin continental slope (NESS), Sea of Okhotsk, during joint Korean–Russian–Japanese expeditions conducted from 2003 to 2007 (CHAOS and SSGH projects). One hundred sixty-one gas seeps were detected in a 2000 km² area of the NESS (between 53°45′N and 54°45′N). Active gas seeps in a gas hydrate province on the NESS were evident from features in the water column, on the seafloor, and in the subsurface: well-defined hydroacoustic anomalies (gas flares), side-scan sonar structures with high backscatter intensity (seepage structures), bathymetric structures (pockmarks and mounds), gas- and gas-hydrate-related seismic features (bottom-simulating reflectors, gas chimneys, high-amplitude reflectors, and acoustic blanking), high methane concentrations in seawater, and gas hydrates in sediment near the seafloor. These expressions were generally spatially related; a gas flare would be associated with a seepage structure (mound), below which a gas chimney was present. The spatial distribution of gas seeps on the NESS is controlled by four types of geological structures: faults, the shelf break, seafloor canyons, and submarine slides. Gas chimneys that produced enhanced reflection on high-resolution seismic profiles are interpreted as active pathways for upward gas migration to the seafloor. The chimneys and gas flares are good indicators of active seepage.     

Estimation of methane fluxes from bottom sediments of Lake Baikal

Methane bubble fluxes in gas flares from bottom sediments in Lake Baikal were estimated for the first time using hydroacoustic methods. Earlier work has demonstrated the occurrence of gas seeps both inside and outside of areas where bottom simulating reflectors were identified in seismic profiles. Fluxes ranged from 14 to 216 tons per year, with the flux for the entire area of the central and southern basins ranging from 1,400 to 2,800 tons per year. Comparison with other water bodies showed that fluxes from the most intensive Baikal flares were similar to those in the Norwegian and Okhotsk seas. Gas hydrates decompose at the lower boundary of the gas hydrate stability zone due to sedimentation. Calculation of the amount of methane produced due to sedimentation gave a total of between 2,600 and 14,000 tons per year for the central and southern basins of the lake. Based on rough estimation, the total flux from shallow- and deep-water gas seeps is similar to the amount of methane produced due to sedimentation. This suggests that gas hydrates possibly occupy much more than 10?% of the pore volume near the base of the gas hydrate stability zone, or that there are other reasons for gas hydrate dissociation and bubble flux from these bottom sediments.     

Mud volcanoes and gas hydrates in the Black Sea: new data from Dvurechenskii and Odessa mud volcanoes

Meteor cruise M52/1 documented the presence of gas hydrates in sediments from mud volcanoes in the Sorokin Trough of the Black Sea. In a mud flow on the Odessa mud volcano, a carbonate crust currently forms in association with anaerobic methane oxidation. Dvurechenskii mud volcano (DMV), a flat-topped mud pie-type structure, appeared to be very active. Pore water in sediments of DMV is enriched in several constituents, such as ammonium and chloride, which seem to originate at depth. High sediment temperatures of up to 16.5 °C in close contact to the ambient bottom water of 9 °C also suggest strong advective transport of material from greater depth. Steep temperature gradients indicate a high fluid and/or mud flux within DMV, which is confirmed by the shape of the pore water profiles. Active fluid expulsion sites are evidenced by direct seafloor observation, and a potential flux of methane from the sediment to the bottom water is indicated by water-column methane measurements.     

南海北部陆坡气泡羽状流的发现:多波束水体数据

利用2016年在南海西北部陆坡琼东南海域采集的多波束水体数据,发现了海底气体渗漏至海水中形成的羽状流。在多波束数据上, 羽状流成火焰状,直径大约为30~50 m,从1 380多米的海底延伸至大约650 m的深度,高度超过700 m。在经过羽状流的浅剖剖面上,存在显示浅层气存在的声学空白区域,并识别出断裂和裂隙区域,但在水体中并无明显的异常。这可能是由于浅剖数据的分辨率不够未能捕捉到水体异常,或者气体渗漏具有间歇性。该海域存在明显的似海底反射显示,气体渗漏可能与水合物系统之间存在复杂的相互作用。由于缺乏经过羽状流的多道地震数据,难以对羽状流的形成机制进行进一步的推测。南海北部陆坡羽状流的发现对于理解被动大陆边缘的甲烷渗漏机制、水合物的形成与分解具有重要的意义。     

流体迁移和海底地形与天然气水合物的形成

使用重力取样器、渔网、深潜器等手段,已经在海底及以下浅表层的区域采获天然气水合物样品,但关于浅表层水合物的发育机制、分布规律、与海底地形的关系等问题还缺乏基本认识。根据2006年鄂霍次克海天然气水合物调查航次的调查数据,发现萨哈林东北陆坡区,特别是中、下陆坡区发育大量海底凸起。这些凸起一般呈不对称的丘形,宽几百米,高几十米。与海底沙波、沙脊不同,海底凸起为孤立海底地形,在南北方向上并不连续。海底剖面仪结果清楚地显示古陆坡凸起的发育。现今海底陆坡凸起的幅度普遍地要小于古陆坡凸起的幅度,个别地方古今陆坡凸起的形态有所变化,但大部分古、今陆坡凸起是一一对应的,基本形态没有根本变化。在萨哈林陆坡地区存在两个方向的挤压应力场,分别是由德鲁根盆地向萨哈林陆坡方向的挤压应力场和萨哈林陆坡沿萨哈林走滑断裂向南的挤压应力场,海底陆坡凸起是这两大应力场复合作用的结果。浊反射区中的游离气是底辟构造中的超高压多相物质向上迁移形成的,浊反射区上方对应的海底凸起应该是宏观构造挤压和局部底辟发育叠合的结果,浊反射区上方的海底凸起,在形态等方面应该和其他仅由挤压构造原因形成的凸起有所区别,比如顶部发育裂口等。在底辟构造中,由于游离气体的向上迁移,在整个水合物稳定域中从下到上,直至海底都可能形成水合物。     

Possible variation in methane flux caused by gas hydrate formation on the northeastern continental slope off Sakhalin Island, Russia

The Sakhalin Slope Gas Hydrate Project (SSGH) is an international collaborative effort by scientists from Japan, Korea, and Russia to investigate natural gas hydrates (GHs) that have accumulated on the continental slope off Sakhalin Island, Okhotsk Sea. From 2009 to 2011, field operations of the SSGH-09, -10, and -11 projects were conducted. GH-bearing and -free sediment cores were retrieved using steel hydro- and gravity corers. The concentrations of sulfate ions in sediment pore waters were measured to investigate sulfate concentration–depth profiles. Seventeen cores showed linear depth profiles of sulfate concentrations. In contrast, eight cores and two cores showed concave-up and -down profiles plausibly explained by sudden increase and decrease in methane flux from below, respectively, presumably caused by the formation of gas hydrate adjacent to the core sampling sites.     

Interseasonal Variability in Methane Concentrations and Fluxes at the Water–Atmosphere Boundary in the Western Sea of Okhotsk

Oceanology - Intra-annual variability in methane fluxes at the water–atmosphere boundary was shown for the first time in the water area of the Sea of Okhotsk east of Sakhalin Island. The...     

Offshore permafrost and gas hydrate stability zone on the shelf of East Siberian Seas

Dynamics of the submarine permafrost regime, including distribution, thickness, and temporal evolution, was modeled for the Laptev and East Siberian Sea shelf zones. This work included simulation of the permafrost-related gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ). Simulations were compared with field observations. Model sensitivity runs were performed using different boundary conditions, including a variety of geological conditions as well as two distinct geothermal heat flows (45 and 70 mW/m²). The heat flows used are typical for the coastal lowlands of the Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea. Use of two different geological deposits, that is, unconsolidated Cainozoic strata and solid bedrock, resulted in the significantly different magnitudes of permafrost thickness, a result of their different physical and thermal properties. Both parameters, the thickness of the submarine permafrost on the shelf and the related development of the GHSZ, were simulated for the last four glacial-eustatic cycles (400,000 years). The results show that the most recently formed permafrost is continuous to the 60-m isobath; at the greater depths of the outer part of the shelf it changes to discontinuous and patchy permafrost. However, model results suggest that the entire Arctic shelf is underlain by relic permafrost in a state stable enough for gas hydrates. Permafrost, as well as the GHSZ, is currently storing probable significant greenhouse gas sources, especially methane that has formed by the decomposition of gas hydrates at greater depth. During climate cooling and associated marine regression, permafrost aggradation takes place due to the low temperatures and the direct exposure of the shelf to the atmosphere. Permafrost degradation takes place during climate warming and marine transgression. However, the temperature of transgressing seawater in contact with the former terrestrial permafrost landscape remains below zero, ranging from –0.5 to –1.8°C, meaning permafrost degradation does not immediately occur. The submerged permafrost degrades slowly, undergoing a transformation in form from ice bonded terrestrial permafrost to ice bearing submarine permafrost that does not possess a temperature gradient. Finally the thickness of ice bearing permafrost decreases from its lower boundary due to the geothermal heat flow. The modeling indicated several other features. There exists a time lag between extreme states in climatic forcing and associated extreme states of permafrost thickness. For example, permafrost continued to degrade for up to 10,000 years following a temperature decline had begun after a climate optimum. Another result showed that the dynamic of permafrost thickness and the variation of the GHSZ are similar but not identical. For example, it can be shown that in recent time permafrost degradation has taken place at the outer part of the shelf whereas the GHSZ is stable or even thickening.     

Isotopic composition of gas hydrates in subsurface sediments from offshore Sakhalin Island, Sea of Okhotsk

Hydrate-bearing sediment cores were retrieved from recently discovered seepage sites located offshore Sakhalin Island in the Sea of Okhotsk. We obtained samples of natural gas hydrates and dissolved gas in pore water using a headspace gas method for determining their molecular and isotopic compositions. Molecular composition ratios C₁/_C2+ from all the seepage sites were in the range of 1,500–50,000, while δ¹³C and δD values of methane ranged from ?66.0 to ?63.2‰ VPDB and ?204.6 to ?196.7‰ VSMOW, respectively. These results indicate that the methane was produced by microbial reduction of CO₂. δ¹³C values of ethane and propane (i.e., ?40.8 to ?27.4‰ VPDB and ?41.3 to ?30.6‰ VPDB, respectively) showed that small amounts of thermogenic gas were mixed with microbial methane. We also analyzed the isotopic difference between hydrate-bound and dissolved gases, and discovered that the magnitude by which the δD hydrate gas was smaller than that of dissolved gas was in the range 4.3–16.6‰, while there were no differences in δ¹³C values. Based on isotopic fractionation of guest gas during the formation of gas hydrate, we conclude that the current gas in the pore water is the source of the gas hydrate at the VNIIOkeangeologia and Giselle Flare sites, but not the source of the gas hydrate at the Hieroglyph and KOPRI sites.     

Sea Beam,SeaMARC II and ALVIN-based studies of faulting on the East Pacific Rise 9°20′ N–9°50′ N

A study of Sea Beam bathymetry and SeaMARC II side-scan sonar allows us to make quantitative measures of the contribution of faulting to the creation of abyssal hill topography on the East Pacific Rise (EPR) 9°15 N–9°50 N. We conclude that fault locations and throws can be confidently determined with just Sea Beam and SeaMARC II based on a number of in situ observations made from the ALVIN submersible. A compilation of 1026 fault scarp locations and scarp height measurements shows systematic variations both parallel and perpendicular to the ridge axis. Outward-facing fault scarps (facing away from the ridge axis), begin to develop within 2 km of the ridge and reach their final average height of 60 m at 5–7 km. Beyond these distances, outward-dipping faults appear to be locked, although there is some indication of continued lengthening of outward-facing fault scarps out to the edge of the survey area. Inward-facing fault scarps (facing toward the ridge axis), initiate 2 km off axis and increase in height and length out to the edge of our data at 30 km, where the average height of inward fault scarps is 60–70 m and the length is 30 km. Continued slip on inward faults at a greater distance off axis is probable, but based on fault lengths, 80% of the lengthening of inward fault scarps occurs within 30 km of the axis (>95% for outward faults). Along-strike propagation and linkage of these faults are common. Outward-dipping faults accommodate more apparent horizontal strain than inward ones within 10 km of the ridge. The net horizontal extension due to faulting at greater distances is estimated as 4.2–4.3%, and inward and outward faults contribute comparably. Both inward- and outward-facing fault scarps increase in height from north to south in our study area in the direction of decreasing inferred magma supply. Average fault spacing is 2 km for both inward-dipping and outward-dipping faults. The azimuths of fault scarps document the direction of ridge spreading, but they are sensitive to local changes in least compressive stress direction near discontinuities. Both the ridge trend and fault scarp azimuths show a clockwise change in trend of 3–5° from 9°50 N to 9°15 N approaching the 9° N overlapping spreading center.     

Chlorinated hydrocarbons in the North Pacific and Indian Oceans

PCBs, DDT compounds and HCH isomers were detected in the air and surface waters of the North Pacific and Indian Oceans, including the Bering Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The general concentrations of each chlorinated hydrocarbon were as follows: water PCBs 0.1 to 1.0, DDT 0.01 to 1.0, HCH 1.0 to 10 ngl ^–1; air DDT 0.01 to 1.0, HCH 0.1 to 10 ng m^–3. PCB concentrations in surface waters were slightly lower than those of the North Atlantic and North Sea previously reported, while DDT concentrations in the air and water were higher. Remarkably high concentrations of DDT and HCH were found in the air off the western coast of India. Also in the Pacific site off Central America, a fairly high concentration of DDT was observed in an air sample. These data suggest that large amounts of DDT and HCH are being used in the tropical zone, especially in southern Asia. Furthermore, high concentrations were observed both in the air and water of the Northwest Pacific between 30°N and 40°N latitude. There is a possibility that both pesticides are not only still being used in lower latitude countries but also in the mid-latitude ones of the Asian continent excluding Japan. In addition to this atmospheric circulation may also contribute to the concentration of these pesticides in the mid-latitudinal zone.     

The distribution of geothermal fields along the East Pacific Rise from 13°10′ N to 8°20′ N: Implications for deep seated origins

In 1983 a combined SeaMARC I, Sea Beam swath mapping expedition traversed the East Pacific Rise from 13°20 N to 9°50 N, including most of the Clipperton Transform Fault at 10°15 N, and a chain of seamounts at 9°50 N which runs obliquely to both the ridge axis and transform fault trends. We collected temperature, salinity and magnetic data along the same track. These data, combined with Deep-Tow data and French hydrocasts, are used to construct a thermal section of the rise axis from 13°10 N to 8°20 N.Thermal data collected out to 25 km from the rise axis and along the Clipperton Transform Fault indicate that temperatures above the rise axis are uniformly warmer by 0.065°C than bottom water temperatures at equal depths off the axis. The rise axis thermal structure is punctuated by four distinct thermal fields with an average spacing of 155 km. All four of these fields are located on morphologic highs. Three fields are characterized by lenses of warmed water 20 km in length and 300 m thick. Additional clues to hydrothermal activity are provided in two cases by high concentrations of CH₄, dissolved Mn and ³He in the water column and in another case by concentrations of benthic animals commonly associated with hydrothermal regions.We use three methods to estimate large-scale heat loss. Heat flow estimates range from 1250 MW to 5600 MW for one thermal field 25 km in length. Total convective heat loss for the four major fields is estimated to lie between 2100 MW and 9450 MW. If we add the amount of heat it takes to warm the rest of the rise axis (489 km in length) by 0.065.°C, then the calculated axial heat loss is from 12,275 to 38,525 MW (19–61% of the total heat theoretically emitted from crust between 0 and 1 m.y. in age).     

Response of the vertical profiles of oxygen and hydrogen sulphide to variation of the components of the water balance in the Black Sea

The influence of the variation of the components of the water balance on the structure of the oxygen and hydrogen sulphide fields in the Black Sea was studied on the basis of the solution of onedimensional problems for the admixture propagation. The vertical profiles of oxygen and hydrogen sulphide were calculated for the cases of enhancing or decreasing the river run-off, and when the Bosphorus undercurrent was blocked. The balance equations show that both a decreasing river run-off and blocking of the Bosphorus undercurrent result in a lowering of the boundaries of the aerobic and anaerobic zones. An increase in the river run-off results in a slight rise of these boundaries. The analysis erformed permits the formulation of some general recommendations on the prevention of an increase of the hydrogen sulphide upper boundary in the sea.Translated by Mikhail M. Trufanov.     

A mid-depth front separating the South China Sea water and the Philippine sea water

In order to understand the influence of the South China Sea (SCS) water on the Kuroshio, and to study the dissolved carbonate system, we participated in six WOCE cruises aboard R/V Ocean Researcher 1. The areas studied were the northeast South China Sea and the West Philippine Sea near the Luzon Strait. Temperature, salinity, pH, alkalinity and total CO₂ were measured. Our data indicate that, although the Kuroshio and the SCS waters flow in and out of the Luzon Strait near surface, the SCS water seems mainly to flow out of the SCS at mid-depth. There exists a mid-depth front near 122°E between 350 and 1350 m in all seasons and years that we studied. The water mass between 350 and 1350 m east of the front belongs to the West Philippine Sea proper water, while on the west is the mixed water of the South China Sea and the West Philippine Sea.