中国电子地图发展中的可视化问题

1IntroductionSpatial data can be visualized and explored in various ways. Developments in hardware and software have led to and will surely continue to stimulate novel methods for visualizing spatial data and creation of electronic atlas information syste…     

Visualization issues in the development of electronic atlas in China

In this paper, we discuss the development of electronic atlas in China, with focus on the issues of visualization. We particularly categorise this development into four periods, and then analyse the characters in each period and discuss the visualization issues. The four periods are highlighted: 1) Infant period (<1990) characterized as computer assisted mapping with products of screen maps; 2) Starting period (1991-1995) characterized as object-oriented mapping with products of interactive maps/atlases; 3) Advancing period (1996-2000) characterized as integrated mapping with products of multimedia cartographic maps; 4) New era (> 2001) characterized as web mapping and adaptive map design with products of Internet maps and atlas as well as adaptive maps. It is obvious that the development follows the logical way from static to dynamic, and even real time visualization, from single user to multiple users, from presentation to exploration for effective communication and knowledge construction. Current research and development projects are focused on customisation of atlas information systems for real-time tasks, Internet operability, small displays and mobile environments. The major challenges involved in each of such customisation processes are identified and commented in relation to the further development of visualization.     

中国古地图遗产与文化价值

中国古地图学创于公元三世纪《西晋·裴秀传》提出的“制图之体有六焉”,被西方誉为中国地图学之父的裴秀（西晋司空）,领衔制作了《禹贡地域图》十八篇和《地形方丈图》（公元224-271年）。其后的1600年间,先后完成了一批著名的中国古地图,例如南朝大臣谢庄领衔完成的”木方丈图”（公元502-557年）、隋炀帝命学者崔绩（550-618年）撰《区宇图志》（公元581-600年）、唐朝宰相贾耽领衔绘制《海内华夷图》（公元730-805年）、北宋科学家沈括领衔绘制《守令图》（公元1031-1095年）、南宋礼部尚书黄裳绘制《苏州石刻天文图》原图（公元1190年）、元代玄教宗师朱思本制作《舆地图》（公元1273-1333年）、明代航海家郑和领衔完成《郑和航海图》与地理学家罗洪先领衔制作《广舆图》（公元1504-1564年）、明代天文学家徐光启等完成的《恒星屏障图》、清代高邮知州魏源受林则徐委托编撰《海国图志》（公元1842-1852年）等,继承与发展了独特的中国古代地图学,即使西方经纬度制图技术于公元1584-1600年前后传至中国,启动了中西地图融合发展,中西两种制图理论和方法并行地使用了400余年。闻名中外的中国古地图,包括古天文图、世界图、中国图、航海图、区域图、水利图、军事图、风景名胜图、历史图、教育图等,迄今仍被国内外著名藏图机构分散地保存着,构成了世界古地图文化遗产中的重要组成部分,具有十分珍贵的文化价值,值得进一步深入探讨、挖掘和利用。本文最后初步地探讨了中国古地图的稀有价值、应用价值、历史价值、科学价值和艺术价值。     

社会地图研究综述与展望

用地图方法研究社会空间已有较长历史,在不同的研究背景下形成了多种研究模式。近年来,大数据的出现和空间信息可视化技术的发展,不仅为社会地图的广泛应用提供了更多数据和方法支撑,也为社会空间的再认识提供了新的契机和可能。本文在对面向社会空间研究的国内外社会地图运用成果进行系统梳理的基础上, 将社会地图的研究应用归纳为要素呈现、问题解释和理论验证3个阶段,并对其具体应用内容、方法和数据形式进行了综述,总结为统计图、点值图、网格图、密度图等四种类型,并就社会地图在中国社会空间研究中的应用可能性及其方向进行了讨论和展望。     

国家经济地图集的设计和制图可视化的方法技术

国家经济地图集是第一部全面,系统反映我国当前经济社会发展面貌和空间分布的大型科学参考地图集,它的编制是一项重大的制图系统工程,本文简要地阐述了图集编制研究的主要方面,包括从分析我国经济社会发展和现状出发,确定图集设计总体目标,为科学和形象地表达我国经济社会特征,而采用的可视化方法技术,以及智能化的计算机制图系统在图集制中的应用。     

网络地图的设计原则

本文从网络地图的特点与功能入手,分析国内外主要地图学网站上的网络地图,结合笔者所进行过的纸质地图与电子地图设计研究及网络地图的设计,总结网络地图的设计特点,提出网络地图的设计原则。认为网络地图不同于一般的电子地图,网络地图的设计应有自己的特点。目前国内外主要地图学网站上的网络地图在地图设计上存在着这样或那样的问题,因此影响了网络地图的信息传输效果,不能发挥其应有的作用。笔者对此进行了分析,结合分析结果,提出了网络地图在界面设计、色彩设计、符号设计、分层设计等方面的设计原则。     

Fluid Borders: Rethinking Historical Geography and Fixed Map Boundaries in Contested Regions

This article introduces a quantitative methodology for analyzing contested map borders. The article applies the new analytical technique to a data set of thirty maps showing Bulgaria in ca. 800 CE, a disputed state and period in medieval historiography with relevance to modern national politics and territorial claims. Based on the data set, we generate a series of new maps that make explicit the fluid medieval boundaries and general disagreement among geographers and historiographers. Our analysis begins with a simple point-in-polygon procedure to create a majority map that depicts the points included within the borders of the Bulgarian polity in sixteen or more of the maps (>50 percent). The majority map is then combined with percentage maps, confidence interval map boundaries, and cluster maps. The confidence interval maps are created via a spatial bootstrapping procedure and measure the uncertainty in the majority map. The cluster maps are developed via a radial basis function and provide insight into the potential affectivity based on the cartographers' countries of origin. The final map reflects the general modern consensus of the borders of the Bulgarian polity around 800 CE. Besides its quantitative contribution to medieval and modern cartographic, historiographical, and political debates, this article has developed a widely applicable methodology for synthesizing map borders and territories in cases of cartographic disagreement.     

The impact of geographical information systems on the role of spatial data libraries

Abstract

The proliferation of digital cartographic and geographic information technologies has provided an obvious alternative to paper for the storage of maps. Not unlike their paper predecessors, digital maps must be indexed to provide sufficient access points to information and to allow the librarian carto-bibliographic control over the collection. Maps have traditionally been treated as ‘unusual’ books and librarians have relied primarily on cataloguing strategies designed for books. Most automated cataloguing efforts involve nothing more than the computerization of card catalogues without altering the nature and design of the task. This paper examines the utilities and unique qualities of cartographic materials and accounts for deficiencies of traditional cataloguing methods for the handling of both analogue and digital cartographic products. In view of the increased availability of digital cartographic databases, this paper also evaluates requirements and presents issues beyond the conventional responsibilities of spatial data librarianship.     

THEORY AND PRACTICE FOR COMPILING THE ATLAS OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN CHINA

CompilinganatlasofnaturaldisastersinChinaisabasistoresearchintoregionaldisasterssystems,torevealthetemPOralandspatialpatternofnaturaldisasters,aswellastoestablishcountermeasuresopinstnamraldisasters.TaldngtheuAtlasOfNaturalDisastersinChina"**asanexample,thisarticleinquiresintotheoreticalandpracticalproblemsaboutcompilinganatlasofregionalnaturaldisasters.ThebasictheoryofcompilinganatlasOfregionaldisastershasbeenfOundedonthecombinati0nofthesciencesofdisasters,cart0graphyandregiotalmhy.Theref…     

《中华人民共和国地貌图集》的研究与编制

Geomorphologic maps are one of the most fundamental materials of the natural environment. They have been widely used in scientific research,resource exploration and extraction,education and military affairs etc. An editorial committee was established in 2001 to collect materials for researching and compiling a set of new 1:1,000,000 geomorphologic atlas of China. A digital geomorphologic database was created with visual interpretation from Landsat TM/ETM imageries and SRTM-DEM etc. The atlas compiled from the database was finished. The main characteristics of the atlas are as follows:Firstly,Landsat TM/ETM imageries,published geomorphologic maps or sketches,geographical base maps,digital geological maps,and other thematic maps were collected,which were uniformly geometrically rectified,clipped into uniform sheets,and stored in the foundation database. Secondly,based on the legends of 15 sheets 1:1,000,000 maps published in the 1980s,a geomorphologic classification system was built by combining morphology and genesis types. The system comprised seven hierarchical layers:basic morphology,genesis,sub-genesis,morphology,micro-morphology,slope and aspect,material composition and lithology. These layers were stored in the database during visual image interpretation. About 2000 kinds of morpho-genesis and 300 kinds of morpho-structure were interpreted. Thirdly,the legend system was built,which included color,symbol bases and note bases etc.,compilation standards and procedures were developed,74 sheets of 1:1,000,000 covering all land and sea territories of China were compiled,the 1:1,000,000 geomorphologic atlas of the People’s Republic of China was finished and published. The atlas will fill the blanks in national basic scale thematic maps,and the geomorphologic database could be applied widely in many fields in the future.     

Research and compilation of the Geomorphologic Atlas of the People’s Republic of China (1:1,000,000)

Geomorphologic maps are one of the most fundamental materials of the natural environment. They have been widely used in scientific research, resource exploration and extraction, education and military affairs etc. An editorial committee was established in 2001 to collect materials for researching and compiling a set of new 1:1,000,000 geomorphologic atlas of China. A digital geomorphologic database was created with visual interpretation from Landsat TM/ETM imageries and SRTM-DEM etc. The atlas compiled from the database was finished. The main characteristics of the atlas are as follows: Firstly, Landsat TM/ETM imageries, published geomorphologic maps or sketches, geographical base maps, digital geological maps, and other thematic maps were collected, which were uniformly geometrically rectified, clipped into uniform sheets, and stored in the foundation database. Secondly, based on the legends of 15 sheets 1:1,000,000 maps published in the 1980s, a geomorphologic classification system was built by combining morphology and genesis types. The system comprised seven hierarchical layers: basic morphology, genesis, sub-genesis, morphology, micro-morphology, slope and aspect, material composition and lithology. These layers were stored in the database during visual image interpretation. About 2000 kinds of morpho- genesis and 300 kinds of morpho-structure were interpreted. Thirdly, the legend system was built, which included color, symbol bases and note bases etc., compilation standards and procedures were developed, 74 sheets of 1:1,000,000 covering all land and sea territories of China were compiled, the 1:1,000,000 geomorphologic atlas of the People’s Republic of China was finished and published. The atlas will fill the blanks in national basic scale thematic maps, and the geomorphologic database could be applied widely in many fields in the future.     

The heritage and cultural values of ancient Chinese maps

Ancient Chinese cartography dates back to the Western Jin Dynasty in the third century. Cartography was initiated during this period by Pei Xiu, a minister and cartographic expert, who suggested six principles of cartography. Pei Xiu, who is known as the father of Chinese cartography, oversaw the completion of the “Yu Gong Regional Maps”, along with 18 articles and the “Terrain Fangzhang Map” (AD 224–271). This led to a number of subsequent cartographic initiatives including the “Wooden Fangzhang Map” (an administrative map) which was completed by Xie Zhuang, a minister during the Southern Dynasties (AD 502–557), “Haineihuayi Tu” (Map of China and its neighbouring countries) (AD 730–805), drawn by Jia Dan, a cartographer of the Tang Dynasty, and “Shouling Tu” (an administrative map, AD 1031–1095), drawn by Shen Kuo, a scientist during the Northern Song Dynasty. Throughout the 16th century, ancient Chinese cartography developed continuously and cumulatively, and formed the specific characteristics of China ancient cartography. Although Western latitude- based and longitude-based mapping techniques introduced to China in AD 1460, the theories and methods of Chinese and Western mapping systems co-existed for over 400 years. The cultural heritage of Chinese cartography can be seen in many famous ancient Chinese maps, including astronomical figures and atlases (world, Chinese, regional, military, water conservancy, historical, and educational maps), charts, and maps of scenic spots. These have hitherto been kept in well-known archives and institutions across the world. They form an important part of the global cultural heritage of ancient maps and cartography. Given their high cultural value, these maps remain an important point of study. This paper provides a preliminary discussion on the rarity, application, and the historical, scientific, and artistic value of ancient Chinese maps.     

The use of digital map data in the segmentation and classification of remotely-sensed images

Abstract

Remotely-sensed data constitute a major potential source of input to geographical information systems (GIS)However, these data often have a relatively poor classification accuracy compared with that of the cartographic data from maps with which they may be combined in the course of GIS analysis. The possibility exists of using data sets (in the form of digital maps) resident within a GIS in order to improve this accuracy, before the classified image is incorporated into the GIS. Results are discussed from a British Alvey Information Technology project to develop a system for the knowledge-based segmentation and classification of remotely-sensed terrain images, in which the knowledge contained in digital map     

小城镇信息图谱初探

小城镇建设将成为我国农村经济发展的一种重要模式。为了引导小城镇的可持续发展,有必要对小城镇演变的内在规律作深入研究。运用“图谱”的表达方式和GIS分析工具,从小城镇图谱的基本构成要素入手,对小城镇的群体空间、外部形态和内部结构的演变规律进行了探讨。并以泰州市城镇群、兰溪市永昌镇为例,作了实证研究。研究表明,采用图谱的表达方式有助于我们对城镇发展进行了历史总结、规律挖掘,客观地把握城镇的发展阶段,从而了解不同时期城镇工作的重点,以有的放矢地采取措施,部署长远规划。     

一体化地图制图信息系统的建立及其应用

由于新技术的发展和应用,地图制图信息系统提出了新的概念,地图生产和应用观念都发生了根本变化,地图学家在新时期下面临着新的机遇和挑战。为了促进我国地图学的发展,中科院地理所引进了美国INTERGRAPH系统,同时又开发了自己的电子地图创作系统EA-World,并研制了两系统之间的接口,使两系统结合成为一体化的地图制图信息系统。系统先后完成了多个国家级图集的印刷版和电子版的制作,取得了良好的效果。文中系统地介绍和总结了这一系统的构成、功能和特点及其工艺流程。     

Monitoring grasshopper and locust habitats in Sahelian Africa using GIS and remote sensing technology†

Abstract

Development programmes in Sahelian Africa are beginning to use geographic information system (GIS) technology. One of the GIS and remote sensing programmes introduced to the region in the late 1980s was the use of seasonal vegetation maps made from satellite data to support grasshopper and locust control. Following serious outbreaks of these pests in 1987, the programme addressed a critical need, by national and international crop protection organizations, to monitor site-specific dynamic vegetation conditions associated with grasshopper and locust breeding. The primary products used in assessing vegetation conditions were vegetation index (greenness) image maps derived from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellite imagery. Vegetation index data were integrated in a GIS with digital cartographic data of individual Sahelian countries. These near-real-time image maps were used regularly in 10 countries for locating potential grasshopper and locust habitats. The programme to monitor vegetation conditions is currently being institutionalized in the Sahel.     

地图与制图术：国际批判制图学/GIS研究进展

地图是地理学的基本语言,也是空间分析必不可少的工具。但长期以来,地图一直被视为一种客观中立的科学成果。受批判地理学的启发,批判制图学/GIS应运而生,其目标是阐明制图实践中所嵌入的话语、权力关系,挑战地图表征中未经检验却被认为是理所当然的假设。经历40余年的争论与磨合,这一研究领域初现轮廓,批判制图学/GIS大致形成2个研究方向：解构路径主要从制图主体身份和地图知识生产过程2个方面出发,分别剖析制图术与国家治理密不可分的联系及其内在的权力作用机制;建构路径主要借助协作制图和反制图手段以实现地图数据的再生产。国内批判制图学/GIS研究刚刚起步,需要继续吸收批判地理学成果,开展不同历史时期、不同类型地图的解构研究,也需要加强建构路径与解构路径的深度弥合,并面向公众开展更加开放、公正的地图应用研究,将研究成果积极应用于社会实践。     

Maps on Acid: Cartographically Constructing the Acid Rain Environmental Issue, 1972–1980

This article traces how maps aided the conceptualization and ensuing debate over one of the first inherently spatial and multiscale environmental issues, acid rain. Through interviews with early acid rain ecologists and a critical cartographic analysis of printed maps, we show that mapping was central for constructing this environmental issue. Rather than static representations of a scientific reality, acid rain maps were interconnected and relational processes that operated within political and economic discourses. Accordingly, we suggest that increased critical engagement and participation with the process of mapping can productively aid dialog on many issues, including other current multiscale environmental issues, such as climate change.     

A Method for Assessing the Planimetric Accuracy of Historical Maps: The Case of the Colorado-Green River System*

The position of linear elements on historical maps can be digitized and numerically compared with similar features on modern maps. This allows for the evaluation of amounts and rates of improvement in cartographic accuracy and of the primary sources used for the generation of subsequent maps. A case study of the Colorado-Green River system illustrates the method and documents the pace of improvement in the cartographic depiction of the river system as a function primarily of the historical pressures of westward expansion.     

Exploring Cultural Universals

Abstract

This article identifies teaching strategies to explore cultural universals. Traits that contribute to distinguishing one culture from another can be classified into general categories that all cultures share. Students identify universals in their daily lives and then compare and contrast different cultural perspectives through an exploration of these universals. Computer technology provides access to images and information about other cultures that might be used to increase students' understanding of cultural perspectives. The Internet provides a vehicle for classrooms to exchange cooperative creative writing stories that allow students the opportunity to explore different cultural perspectives through the eyes of other students around the world. Suggestions about how to establish and conduct a classroom exchange project over the Internet are provided.