GARDENS AND DWELLING: PEOPLE IN VERNACULAR GARDENS*

ABSTRACT. Investigations of dooryard gardens, kitchen gardens, home gardens, and houselot gardens fall unequally into one of three groupings. The first are those that treat the plants in the gardens as biological entities and define a space considered a culturally controlled biological community or habitat. The second are those that consider plants cultural traits and the space defined by their positions a setting for household activities. The third conceives of plants as design elements within a garden or a landscape that frames a house or provides a setting for formal human performances. Recent decades have witnessed a broadening focus in the study of gardens, from spatial characteristics and biological content to social and cultural concerns such as reciprocity networks, contested spaces, and the concept of “dwelling.”     

AUSTRALIAN BACKYARD GARDENS AND THE JOURNEY OF MIGRATION*

ABSTRACT. Gardens have been an important site of environmental engagement in Australia since the British colonization. They are places where immigrant people and plants have carried on traditions from their homelands and have worked out an accommodation with new social and biophysical environments. We examined the backyard gardens of three contemporary migrant groups—Macedonian, Vietnamese, and British born—in suburban Australia and a group of first‐generation Australians with both parents born overseas. In Macedonian backyards, emphasis was strong on the production of vegetables; in Vietnamese backyards, on herbs and fruit. British backyards were more diverse, some focusing on non‐native ornamental flowers and others favoring native plants. The cohesiveness of the respective groups was partly an artifact of our sampling strategy. The Macedonian and Vietnamese migrants shared an affinity for productive, humanized landscapes that reflected their rural, subsistence backgrounds and crossed over into their attitudes toward the broader environment and national parks. The rural and village backgrounds help explain why intensive backyard food production has broken down among the next generation in (sub)urban Australia, becoming part of heritage rather than everyday practice.     

HOME GARDENS IN AMAZONIAN PERU: DIVERSITY AND EXCHANGE OF PLANTING MATERIAL*

ABSTRACT. This article examines how peasant farmers build and maintain agrobiodiversity in home gardens found in two traditional peasant communities along the Marañón River in the Peruvian Amazon. Data were gathered through household and garden surveys as well as in‐depth interviews with garden tenders in an upland mixed agricultural village and a lowland fishing village. Substantial variations in cultivated plant diversity were encountered in gardens between and within the villages, which are found to be related to differential exchange of seeds, cuttings, suckers, and other planting material as well as to specific garden and household characteristics. Planting material flows along multiple pathways—from gift giving and purchase to inheritance and scavenging—to the gardens, reflecting a complex and often extensive network of exchange that enables the establishment and maintenance of home garden plant diversity in seemingly isolated and small communities. Further research is needed to identify broader geographical and sociocultural patterns of agrobiodiversity in Amazonia.     

COMMUNITY GARDENS AND POLITICS OF SCALE IN NEW YORK CITY*

ABSTRACT. New York City community gardens have been the subject of political contestation over the course of their thirty‐year existence. In 1999, 114 gardens were slated for public auction and redevelopment. This article examines the controversy over the garden auction as a politics of scale in which garden advocates successively raised the scope of the controversy beyond the scale of individual gardens, and ultimately beyond that of the city. Analysis of this land‐use conflict highlights the significance of politics of scale for grassroots organizations within a market‐centric, neoliberal economic framework.     

MARKET TRADE IN DECENTRALIZED DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF CAJAMARCA,PERU *

Decentralized development views market trade and market towns as part of a comprehensive strategy to divert economic development away from major metropolitan areas. Seventy-one traders were surveyed in the central market of Cajamarca, Peru in 1981. Most are women earning minimal incomes, primarily because of price controls and expensive credit. Stimulating market trade as it is currently organized seems unlikely to assist migrants in secondary towns or to stimulate agricultural development in their hinterlands.     

GARDENS ARE US,WE ARE NATURE: TRANSCENDING ANTIQUITY AND MODERNITY*

ABSTRACT. The history of gardens and the history of humans are linked inextricably, especially in the context of environment. As people and their institutions have changed, so too have gardens. This brief essay illustrates some important aspects in the evolution of gardens, exploring three seemingly discrete, but actually interconnected, notions: the antiquity of gardens, combining archaeological data with ethnographic parallels; the role of gardens in the changing spatial manifestations of agriculture, from dump heaps to amber waves of grain; and the transformation of domestic space, the literal and figurative reconstruction of garden fences into house walls. Changes are discussed as inadvertent products, rather than as consequences of deliberate actions. Modern ideas about categorizing landscapes are challenged further. The nature/culture dualism is a myth even at the household scale, as is our traditional way of looking at the world.     

The politics of perspective: subjects,exhibits, and spectacle in Taksim Square,Istanbul

Istanbul’s Taksim Square has long been a place from which people have envisioned the city and the nation. As such, it has a long history of architectural interventions. This essay describes three new interventions as they appeared in July2018, two years after the failed coup attempt of 15July2016: a municipal complex commemorating the resistance to the coup attempt; the juxtaposition of a memorial photo exhibit and the void of the Atatürk Culture Center; and the rapid construction of the Taksim Mosque. Drawing on conceptualizations of landscape and scholarship on Taksim Square’s contested meanings, this paper utilizes the “politics of perspective” as an analytical lens to examine how authorities are attempting to create anew way of seeing in the city. I argue that this project has acquired a new character in the aftermath of the coup attempt, placing viewers within the landscape rather than outside it.     

TENDING CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AND FOOD CITIZENSHIP IN TORONTO'S COMMUNITY GARDENS*

ABSTRACT. Scattered throughout the city of Toronto are more than no community gardens, sites of place‐based politics connected to the community food‐security movement. The gardens, spaces where passions for plants and food are shared, reflect the city's shifting cultural landscape and represent an everyday activity that is imbued with multiple meanings. Toronto's community food‐security movement uses gardens as one strategy to regenerate the local food system and provide access to healthy, affordable food. Three garden case studies expand on the complexities of “food citizenship,” illustrating the importance of that concept to notions of food security. The gardens reveal the role gardeners play in transforming urban spaces, the complex network of organizations working cooperatively and in partnership to implement these projects, and the way in which social and cultural pluralism are shaping the urban landscape.     

面向国际市场的中国农业持续发展

本文从持续农业体系基础、特点、功能、结构出发,论述了国际市场同中国农业持续发展的关系,国际贸易在农业持续发展中的功能,以及国际贸易自由化趋势给中国农业发展带来的机遇和挑战,从而提出可供选择的发展对策.     

NARRATIVES IN CITY LANDSCAPES: CULTURAL IDENTITY IN ISTANBUL*

ABSTRACT. Since the foundation of the Turkish Republic in 1923, when the Turkish nation was defined as ethnically Turkish and Muslim, the issue of ethnic minorities has been at the root of a deep insecurity concerning cultural identity and what it means to be Turkish. The movement to “recover” ethnic minority in history and in place is most visible in Istanbul, the city identified as the location of European culture in Turkey and Turkey's most culturally pluralistic city. The movement has gained pace since the formal acceptance of Turkey as a candidate for membership in the European Union and the push for reforms in human rights. It is promoted by a very small cultural and economic elite and works together with gentrification to produce elite spaces in the city, as exemplified by two neighborhoods: Kuzguncuk, a historic minority neighborhood on the Asian shore of the Bosporus; and “French Street,” a new commercial development in Beyoǧlu, on the European side of the city west of the Bosporus. These landscapes articulate a European, cosmopolitan, and multicultural place identity for Istanbul and reflect a particular notion of Turkey as modern and European, providing insight into the contemporary debate in Turkey concerning the tensions embedded at the core of Turkish cultural identity.     

Urban Perennials: How Diversification has Created a Sustainable Community Garden Movement in The United States

Our research seeks to understand how the contemporary community garden movement in the United States differs from its predecessors and whether its new foundation increases the political and financial sustainability of today's gardens. To this end, this article reviews historical and contemporary literature, and surveys participants in three distinctive community gardens, to answer several related research questions. First, what is the current state of the US community garden movement, and how have its historical roots shaped its response to current policy concerns? Second, which populations comprise today's community gardeners, and what motivates them to participate? After considering the findings from our three study gardens, and from a review of secondary and “gray” literature, we conclude by positing that a greater diversity of gardeners and gardening motivations, accompanied by changing leading views on urban land uses, will lead to such urban gardens remaining a more lasting feature of city neighborhood landscapes.     

KITCHENSPACE,FIESTAS, AND CULTURAL REPRODUCTION IN MEXICAN HOUSE‐LOT GARDENS*

ABSTRACT. The house‐lot garden in central Mexico is gendered space where changing cultural identities are negotiated, re‐created, and celebrated as “tradition” is continually redefined. No clear boundary separates the kitchen from the house‐lot garden or the private space of the household from the semipublic space of the community. During collective food preparation for religious fiestas, gendered reciprocity networks strengthen community relations and foster alliances between traditional neighborhoods and between communities in the region. At the intersection of everyday life and fiestas, food‐preparation spaces, or kitchenspaces, in the house‐lot garden are fertile areas in which to explore the cultural reproduction of nature‐society relations. They are vital to understanding gender, place, and culture in this region and represent people's symbolic connection with the land in increasingly urban contexts. This article analyzes the sense of place that Mexican women derive from their house‐lot gardens.     

THEIR SPACE: SECURITY AND SERVICE WORKERS IN A BRAZILIAN GATED COMMUNITY*

ABSTRACT. This study examines the role of service workers in creating a secure landscape in a zone of gated communities near Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Most research on gated communities emphasizes their segregation and formal security apparatuses. In fact, gated communities interact with surrounding rural settlements because they draw their service employees from them. Security emerges from informal relationships of trust that property owners establish with service workers. Gardeners, especially, enable homeowners to project their property investment to others through landscaping. Equally of importance, a manicured garden conveys the message that a home is receiving daily attention—and is secure—even if the owner is not present. The study probes this interdependence from the point of view of gardeners in the context of one gated community in an area south of Belo Horizonte and the attempts by members of its homeowners association to minimize the sense of fear they associate with the Brazilian city.     

TWO HUNDRED HECTARES OF GOOD BUSINESS: BRAZILIAN AGRICULTURE IN A THEMED SPACE*

Geographers have recognized that trade fairs and other temporary spaces function as centers of knowledge, but we have a weak understanding of how fairs are themed spaces, similar to parades, festivals, and built environments, that produce cultural and political meanings. In this article we analyze the morphology, iconography, and performance of a large agricultural fair in Brazil, the Bahia Farm Show, which produces a regional identity of highly productive, leading‐edge, and globally competitive agriculture in a former economic backwater. We discuss the production of themes in terms of power relations, cultural processes, relations with nature, and sociotechnological norms for agriculture. Omissions from the Farm Show indicate tension and accommodation between elites at different geographical scales. Brazil's high‐input, high‐output agriculture relies in part on the meanings that events such as agricultural fairs sustain and reproduce.     

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF RIPARIAN CORRIDORS IN CORNBELT FLOODPLAINS: A RESEARCH FRAMEWORK*

A new research framework determines the economic value of riparian corridors in floodplains of the agricultural Midwest. Market mechanisms can fail to account for many positive attributes of riparian wetland ecosystems. Individual farmers frequently make socially inappropriate decisions regarding floodplain land-uses because the benefits accruing from wetlands, such as improved water quality and enhanced recreational activities, are public goods. A spatial economic model, based on willingness-to-pay procedures, assesses the apposite mix of agricultural/wetland land uses that compares the marginal value of natural riparian vegetation and agricultural production on rural Cornbelt floodplains. A simple case study illustrates the framework.     

旅游资源市场价值提升的对策研究

虽然近年来旅游业得到了长足的发展，但旅游资源还没有得到充分发掘，旅游产业的带动作用还没有得到充分发挥。提升旅游资源的市场价值，提高景点、景区档次，打响品牌，增强旅游企业核心竞争力显得尤为迫切。以科学合理地整合旅游资源为思路，预期可产生调整旅游产品结构、调整旅游企业规模、整合旅游资源的品牌形象、促进再就业、维护社会政治稳定、带动贫困地区脱贫致富和经济社会协调发展等效益。旅游资源市场价值的提升可通过对市场品牌信息共享、基础设施和生态环境共建、建立战略联盟和旅游企业的集团化发展等几种模式实现。     

汕头市旅游市场特征及其研究意义

运用"市场分类研究法"和"产品-需求对应分析法",对不同的旅游吸引物所对应的旅游市场进行分类调研和分类处理,发现景点旅游者市场与城市过夜旅游者市场存在着明显的差异.认识这些差异,对于分析汕头旅游发展的主导旅游吸引,分析旅游需求趋势和需求预测,对于确定区域旅游发展的主动力模型和旅游发展动力机制,制定产品战略和市场战略具有重要的意义.     

法国旅华客源市场特征与拓展分析

中国旅游资源丰富、基础设施完善,中法关系源远流长,这为发展法国旅华市场提供了重要的基础。研究通过对大量资料的梳理,运用定性与定量相结合的方法,从时间角度、旅游者行为角度、空间角度对法国旅华市场进行了相应的特征分析。得出结论:两国关系直接影响到法国旅华游客的数量,中国旅游业对于法国游客不同需求的满足是发展法国旅华市场的重要推动力。最后从旅游宣传推广、提高旅游服务质量和开发特色旅游产品等方面提出了市场拓展建议。     

国内出境旅游市场研究综述

出境旅游是中国旅游业的重要组成部分之一。近年来,中国的出境旅游取得了巨大发展,引起社会广泛关注,出境旅游市场的研究已成为旅游研究的重要领域之一。以出境旅游的内涵为出发点,从出境旅游市场迅速发展的原因、市场特征、发展中存在的问题及发展趋势等方面对国内自2000年以来的出境旅游市场研究进行了总结,并指出当前国内在出境旅游市场研究内容、研究区域和研究方法上存在的不足,以期为中国出境旅游研究的发展提供参考。