Joint probability analysis of momentum and heat fluxes at a deciduous forest

Turbulent transport processes for momentum and scalar quantities are examined by a joint probability distribution analysis using data observed within and above a deciduous forest. Characteristics of transport processes in the frequency domain were also analyzed using Tukey's procedure. The results confirm that sweep phenomena prevail within and at the top of a tall plant canopy and that downdrafts are more effective for vertical transport of momentum and scalar quantities. On the other hand, updrafts become more efficient for vertical transport in the daytime at levels about twice treetop height. The results show that within the forest, the sweep phenomenon prevails over a wide frequency range, while above the forest, prevalence of the ejection phenomenon is limited to low frequencies. It is again noted that the plant canopy plays an important role in the sweep-ejection cycle as well as in turbulent transport processes.     

Eddy fluxes of CO2, water vapor,and sensible heat over a deciduous forest

Fluxes of CO₂, latent heat and sensible heat were measured above a fully-leafed deciduous forest in eastern Tennessee with the eddy correlation technique. These are among the first reported observations over such a surface. The influences of solar radiation, vapor pressure deficit and the aerodynamic and canopy resistances on these mass and energy exchanges are examined. Following a concept introduced by McNaughton and Jarvis (1983), examination of our data suggest that the water vapor exchange of a deciduous forest is not as strongly coupled with net radiation as is that of agricultural crops. The degree of decoupling is smaller than in the case of a coniferous forest. This difference may be attributable in part to the greater aerodynamic resistance to water vapor transfer in a deciduous forest. It appears that the concept of decoupling may be extended to the CO₂ exchange of a deciduous forest as well.Published as Paper No. 7832, Journal Series, Nebraska Agricultural Research Division. ATDD Contribution No. 85-17.     

Vertical divergence of fogwater fluxes above a spruce forest

Two almost identical eddy covariance measurement setups were used to measure the fogwater fluxes to a forest ecosystem in the “Fichtelgebirge” mountains (Waldstein research site, 786 m a.s.l.) in Germany. During the first experiment, an intercomparison was carried out with both setups running simultaneously at the same measuring height on a meteorological tower, 12.5 m above the forest canopy. The results confirmed a close agreement of the turbulent fluxes between the two setups, and allowed to intercalibrate liquid water content (LWC) and gravitational fluxes. During the second experiment, the setups were mounted at a height of 12.5 and 3 m above the canopy, respectively. For the 22 fog events, a persistent negative flux divergence was observed with a greater downward flux at the upper level. To extrapolate the turbulent liquid water fluxes measured at height z to the canopy of height h_c, a conversion factor 1/[1+0.116(z−h_c)] was determined. For the fluxes of nonvolatile ions, no such correction is necessary since the net evaporation of the fog droplets appears to be the primary cause of the vertical flux divergence. Although the net evaporation reduces the liquid water flux reaching the canopy, it is not expected to change the absolute amount of ions dissolved in fogwater.     

Comparative measurements of the energy fluxes over a pine forest

During the summer of 1974, simultaneous heat flux measurements were made over a pine forest in three ways:

1. Using the Bowen ratio - Energy Budget technique, with the Bowen ratio estimated from temperature and humidity profiles measured with two pairs of wet-and dry-bulb thermometers at six levels.
2. Using the Bowen ratio - Energy Budget technique, with the Bowen ratio estimated from temperature and humidity measurements using pairs of wet-and dry-bulb thermometers mechanically interchanged every ten minutes.
3. Using the Eddy Correlation - Energy Budget technique, with a direct measurement of the sensible heat flux made by a simple eddy correlation apparatus.

Methods (b) and (c) are shown to give similar results apart from a systematic difference of about 25% in the measured sensible heat flux. This corresponds to an underestimate of the sensible heat flux by the eddy correlation apparatus. Although sometimes consistent with the other two methods, on occasions method (a) gave results which were significantly different from both (b) and (c). When differences occurred, they tended to be systematic and persistent over individual days; but they could change magnitude and sign if the particular sensors used at each level in the profile were rearranged. The experimental program used to collect these and previous data involved the rearrangement of sensors on a regular (two day) time scale. It is shown that, when averaged over several such rearrangements, method (a) produces median values of surface resistance which are more in keeping with those produced by the other methods. This is taken to imply that data previously gathered in this way can be used to produce physically reasonable results providing they are averaged over several days. On the basis of the results presented, recommendations are made on future experimental work in forest micrometeorology.     

Surface heat fluxes from a numerical weather prediction system

Twenty-two months (July 1983-April 1985) of surface heat fluxes predicted at day 1 from a numerical weather prediction system have been processed. Monthly means and monthly standard deviations of available surface short-wave, long-wave, latent and sensible heat fluxes as well as annual means have been computed. The global mean of the annual net sea-surface heat flux is about 40 Wm^–2 and is therefore far from equilibrium. When used to force an oceanic model, these fluxes would tend to warm the ocean and would produce an unrealistic transport of heat by the oceanic general circulation. They therefore need to be corrected. This correction appears feasible because the main difference between these fluxes and long-term climatologies appears largely independent of the month and the latitude. This suggests that the errors have a systematic origin. The corrected fluxes allow both the reproduction of a realistic seasonal migration of the zero net heat-flux line and the reproduction of the annual meridional heat transport in the different oceans, within the range of previous estimates.     

Eddy-correlation measurements of sensible heat fluxes over a grass surface

Direct measurements of sensible heat fluxes were conducted over a grass surface at Ladner, British Columbia, using yaw-sphere-thermometer eddy-correlation systems. The results show that for half-hour averaging periods, there is no phase-lag between sensible heat and net radiation flux densities. Field comparison of two yaw-sphere-thermometer systems gave good and consistent agreement. At a height of 2 m above ground and a horizontal crosswind separation of 1.5 m, less than 5% variability was noted in the measured heat fluxes. For a 19-m horizontal separation, the variability was less than 20%. The aridity index (α) advanced by Priestley and Taylor (1972), is shown to be a potentially useful climatic indicator.     

Temporal variations in heat fluxes over a central European city centre

Summary Energy fluxes have been measured over an area near the centre of the city of Łódź, Poland, since November 2000. The site was selected because the building style (surface cover and morphology) is typical of European cities, yet distinct from the majority of cities where energy balance observations have been studied thus far. The multi-year dataset permits consideration of temporal changes in energy balance partitioning over a wide range of seasonal and synoptic conditions and of the role of heat storage and anthropogenic fluxes in the energy balance. Partitioning of net radiation into the turbulent fluxes is consistent in the two years, with the largest differences occurring due to differing precipitation. The monthly ensemble diurnal cycles of the turbulent fluxes over the two years are similar. The largest differences occur during the July–September period, and are attributable to greater net radiation and lower rainfall in 2002. The latent heat flux accounts for approximately 40% of the turbulent heat transfer on an annual basis. The average daily daytime Bowen ratio and its variability are slightly reduced during the summer (growing) season. Anthropogenic heat is a significant input to the urban energy balance in the winter. The fluxes observed in this study are consistent with results from other urban sites.     

Analysis of long time series of long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine forest

Summary ?The long-term variations of upward terrestrial (E) and downward atmospheric (A) long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine stand in the southern part of the upper Rhine valley plain are analysed based on monthly mean values from 27 years of monitoring. Equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy and the atmosphere are calculated and compared to air temperatures at nearby sites. Based on 324 monthly values each, correlations between A and E as well as A and global radiation G are analysed. Only the former are highly correlated. Monthly mean values of long-wave radiation A can be calculated from air temperature, water vapour pressure and cloud cover. The long-term yearly average of equivalent blackbody temperature of the canopy is 0.6 K lower than kinetic air temperature at nearby sites. Only small, insignificant increases of both blackbody temperatures and air temperature are found. Despite the strong forest growth, it is surprising that the ratio of canopy emission temperature to air temperature did not change significantly. Relationships between the changes of general atmospheric circulation and equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy point to a strong dependence on shifts of general atmospheric flow. Received February 24, 2000; revised April 18, 2002; accepted July 20, 2002     

Subgrid-scale vertical heat fluxes for the African region

Summary A diagnostic model for complete heat budgets in the free atmosphere is presented and is applied to the African-Atlantic sector between 35°S–30°N for May 1979. The model is based on the conservation equations for latent and sensible heat. These are evaluated in a form integrated over 24 hours in time and over atmospheric boxes of 2.5°×2.5° in horizontal and 100 hPa in vertical direction. Grid-scale input data are the 3D-ECMWF-diagnoses of the FGGE period plus parameterized fields of surface rain, evaporation and sensible Heat flux. This leads to an overspecification of latent and sensible heat budgets for any atmospheric column between surface and top of the atmosphere and thus yields an objective column imbalance. In order to separate the vertical subscale fluxes of rain, moisture and heat in the free atmosphere the model uses a closure assumption for the coupling between moisture and sensible heat flux as well as one for the vertical imbalance profiles; it is demonstrated that the budgets are not too sensitive with respect to these parameterizations.Results are presented in terms of vertical profiles of the subscale vertical fluxes of rain, moisture and heat. These are interpeted as measures of convective activity, with particular emphasis on the ITCZ. May 1979 averages as well as results for a respresentative single day are discussed. The imbalance (=the error) can be sufficiently well separated from the signal. It is shown that the low-level mass flux divergence does not coincide with the position of the ITCZ while the maximum of the subscale fluxes does coincide. Over the continent, it is not the horizontal mass flux convergence which feeds the ITCZ and the rainbelt but rather the subscale moisture flux and its convergence in the vertical. Over the Saharan latitudes, there is considerable convective flux of sensible heat, but not of latent heat. Over the ocean, deep convection in the ITCZ is weaker than over Africa, and it is consistently correlated with upward converging subscale moisture flux. The fields of the subscale vertical fluxes are coherent in space and time. It is argued from these results that the presented diagnostic model is potentially useful for testing parameterizations of convection in general circulation and climate models.With 19 Figures     

Subsynoptic vertical heat fluxes from high-resolution synoptic budgets

Summary A recently designed diagnostic model for synoptic heat budgets is reviewed and is applied to selected ALPEX-SOP dates. The model uses the conservation equations for moisture, (sensible) heat and mass. All synoptically observable terms (including moisture and heat tendencies and surface rain) are specified from objective analyses. Quasi-observable terms (including , radiation, surface evaporation and surface heat flux) are also considered synoptic and are specified close to observations. The non-observable terms: rain, moisture and heat fluxes in the free atmosphere are considered subsynoptic; they are determined as residuals. The model includes a submodel for the errors, a closure assumption which couples the vertical moisture and heat fluxes and a variational 3D-mass flux modification. This is the minimum parameterization level possible with these data.Results over the ALPEX-domain are shown for 5 dates from 4–6 March 1982. Each budget is a 24 h-average, each diagnostic box has a horizontal/vertical resolution of 100 km/100 hPa. The presentation focusses upon the three vertical heat fluxes. The model separates signal (=subsynoptic fluxes, 0–600 W m^–2) from error (0–60 W m^–2), the fields are coherent both in space and time, and the different stages of the synoptic development are reproduced by the subsynoptic fields. While the rain is downward and the moisture flux upward everywhere, the heat flux is upward in the trough, weak in the ridge and downward ahead of the next trough. The rain flux vector is usually divergent but can occasionally be convergent in lower levels which indicates reevaporation. The great detail in the fields of rain, moisture and heat flux proves that diagnostic models of this kind are potentially useful for further synoptic research.

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Subsynoptische vertikale Wärmeflüsse aus hochauflösenden synoptischen Haushalten

Zusammenfassung Ein kürzlich entwickeltes diagnotisches Modell für synoptische Wärmehaushalte wird dargestellt und auf ausgewählte ALPEX-SOP-Termine angewandt. Das Modell verwendet die Erhaltungsgleichungen für Feuchte, (fühlbare) Wärme und Masse. Alle synoptisch beobachtbaren Glieder (einschließlich Feuchte- und Wärmetendenz sowie Bodenniederschlag) werden aus objektiven Analysen spezifiziert. Quasi-beobachtbare Glieder (einschließlich , Strahlung, Bodenverdunstung und Bodenwärmefluß) werden ebenfalls als synoptisch angesehen und beobachtungsnahe spezifiziert. Die nicht-beobachtbaren Glieder: Regen, Feuchtefluß und Wärmefluß in der freien Atmosphäre werden als subsynoptisch angesehen und als Residuum bestimmt. Das Modell enthält ein Untermodell für die Fehler, eine Schließungsannahme, welche den vertikalen Feuchte- und Wärmefluß koppelt, sowie eine, auf dem Variationsprinzip beruhende, Modifikation des 3D-Massenflusses. Dies ist der minimale Parametrisierungsaufwand, der mit den vorliegenden Daten möglich ist.Ergebnisse über dem ALPEX-Gebiet werden gezeigt für 5 Termine vom 4.–6. März 1982. Jeder Haushalt ist ein 24 h-Mittel, jede Diagnosebox hat eine horizontale/vertikale Auflösung von 100 km/100 hPa. Die Darstellung konzentriert sich auf die drei vertikalen Wärmeflüsse. Das Modell trennt Signal (=subsynoptische Flüsse, 0–600 W m^–2) und Fehler (0–60 W m^–2), die Felder sind räumlich und zeitlich kohärent, und die verschiedenen Stadien der synoptischen Entwicklung werden durch die subsynoptischen Felder wiedergegeben. Während der Regen überall abwärts und der Feuchtefluß überall aufwärts gerichtet sind, ist der Wärmefluß aufwärts im Trog, praktisch Null im Rücken und abwärts vor dem nächsten Trog. Der Regenflußvektor ist gewöhnlich divergent, aber kann gelegentlich in unteren Schichten konvergent sein, was Wiederverdunstung anzeigt. Die vielen Einzelheiten der Felder von Regen, Feuchte- und Wärmefluß beweisen, daß diagnostische Modelle dieser Art von potentiellem Nutzen für die weitere synoptische Forschung sind.

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With 14 Figures     

Apparent counter-gradient heat fluxes generated by atmospheric waves

In studies of turbulence, tower data are used to measure vertical fluxes of momentum and heat generated by correlations in the fluctuating fields. Similar time averages of wu and w may be computed for an interval of wave activity observed at an instrumented tower. However, it is shown that such measurements do not necessarily correspond to the conventional Reynold's stresses or vertical heat fluxes. And waves can appear to have non-zero and even countergradient fluxes when proper averages show no fluxes at all.These spurious fluxes are generated by the method of analysis, a Fourier series performed on a finite time interval. Any background disturbance that is not strictly confined to the interval will generate a spurious wave spectrum. In particular, long-period waves will generate terms that interfere with the true high frequency waves to give false wave fluxes. The theoretical findings of this paper provide a ready explanation of tower data that would otherwise appear to conflict with conventional wave theory.     

凝结潜热释放和地表热通量对一次飑线过程的影响

针对2013年7月4—5日一次产生大风、短时强降水强对流天气的飑线过程进行数值试验,研究了凝结潜热释放和地表热通量在中尺度对流系统的发生发展过程中的影响。结果表明:(1)凝结潜热释放对飑线系统有重要的作用,对飑线发展维持、移动及成熟阶段的垂直结构都有着一定影响。(2)当飑线系统进入成熟阶段后,小尺度的积云对流中的凝结加热作用于中高层大气,加强了高层辐散低层辐合的配置,而对流系统内垂直上升运动的加强又导致凝结加热作用更强。(3)凝结加热作用极大地促进了飑线的低层入流、高层出流的垂直结构,以及系统前方中层入流和高层出流之间形成的间接垂直反环流,促进高空动能下传的同时,使系统前方对流不稳定性增加,新的对流单体易于触发。(4)潜热释放间接增强了对流内部的冷性下沉气流,进而加强了低层的阵风锋,使得新的对流单体能在飑锋处触发,飑线以新老对流单体交替的方式向前移动。(5)在高低空急流的垂直耦合促进飑线发展的同时,成熟阶段飑线中较强的凝结加热对高低层急流有反馈作用,一定程度上增强了这种垂直耦合。(6)地表感热、潜热通量等边界层非绝热过程在对流系统的触发和发展中起到了较为重要的作用。地表热通量在白天加强了对流边界层的湍流混合作用,由此产生的特征维持到了夜间,形成了适合飑线触发的层结条件。另外,在对流形成之前,与地表潜热通量相关的边界层加湿作用为对流的爆发贮存了丰富的水汽和不稳定能量。     

Comparison of in-situ measured ground heat fluxes within a heteorogeneous urban ballast layer

Summary This study concentrates on measurements of ground heat fluxes within a porous urban ballast layer that were conducted from June to September 2002 at the goods station in Osnabrück, Germany. To account for the limitation of accurately installing sensors within the heterogeneous and porous ballast bulk, the heat fluxes were calculated from four different methods to compare their variability, dynamics and shortcomings. Ground heat fluxes were gathered from 1) a heat flux plate with the inclusion of heat storage between the soil surface and the heat flux plate, 2) temperature gradient measurements with correction for heat storage, 3) temperature gradient measurements with a modelled surface temperature and a laboratory derived thermal conductivity, 4) as residual from the surface energy balance equation. The results show a distinct deviation of the four methods for absolute values of the ground heat flux as well as for temporal dynamics on the diurnal cycle. As indicated by the temporal dynamics of the ground heat flux times series and a simple error analysis of the four methods, the most plausible estimates for an urban application in a heterogeneous ballast layer were obtained by temperature gradient measurements between the surface and −0.05 m. Overall, the results indicate that accurate ground heat flux measurements in urban applications still prove difficult to acquire.     

Air flow over and through a forest edge: A steady-state numerical simulation

A numerical model was developed to simulate neutrally stratified air flow over and through a forest edge. The spatially averaged equations for turbulent flow in vegetation canopies are derived as the governing equations. A first-order closure scheme with the capability of accounting for the bulk momentum transport process in vegetation canopies is employed. The averaged equations are solved numerically by a fractional time-step method and successive relaxation. The asymptotic solution in time is regarded as the steady-state solution. Comparisons of model output to the field measurements of Raynor (1971) indicate that the model provides a realistic mean flow.Momentum balance computations show that the pressure gradient induced by the wind blowing against the forest edge is significant and has the same order of magnitude as the drag force in the edge region. The edge effect involves the generation of drag forces, the appearance of a large pressure gradient, the upward deflection of mean flow and the transport of momentum into the edge of the canopy.     

Carbon dioxide,water vapor and sensible heat fluxes over a tallgrass prairie

Fluxes of CO₂, water vapor and sensible heat were measured in a grassland ecosystem near Manhattan, Kansas, employing the eddy correlation technique. The vegetation at this site is dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans). Diurnal patterns of the energy budget components and CO₂ fluxes are evaluated on a few selected days. Influence of high atmospheric evaporative demand and low availability of soil water are examined on (a) energy partitioning, and (b) the magnitudes and patterns of atmospheric carbon dioxide exchange.Published as Paper No. 8470, Journal Series, Nebraska Agricultural Research Division.     

The intermittent vertical heat flux over a spruce forest canopy

Vertical heat and momentum fluxes were measured by the eddy correlation method under near-neutral conditions during both day and night above a spruce forest canopy. Results show that 50% of the heat transported to the spruce canopy during night and away from the canopy during the day occurs in extreme magnitude events, the majority of less than one second duration. Extreme-magnitude events were more frequent and lasted longer during the day than during the night. The distributions of the duration of extreme events in the same direction as the net heat flux and the turbulence intensity for both day and night were similar.During the night, the mean horizontal windspeed was about 1 m s^-1 and the measured coincident transport of momentum and heat accounted for 36% of the total heat flux. The predominant mechanism of forced convection during the extreme nightime heat transport events was excess heat sweeps in which the duration of the event is usually less than 1 s. During the day, the mean horizontal windspeed was about 2 m s ^-1 and the measured coincident transport of momentum and heat accounted for only 16% of the total heat flux. Local free convection was suggested to account for 27% of the total heat flux. The predominant mechanism of mixed convection during the extreme daytime heat transport events is deficit heat inward interactions. During both night and day, about 10% of the total heat transport occurred in extreme events working against the thermal gradient.Now atPurdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.     

Eddy correlation measurements of CO2, latent heat,and sensible heat fluxes over a crop surface

Eddy correlation equipment was used to measure mass and energy fluxes over a soybean crop. A rapid response CO₂ sensor, a drag anemometer, a Lyman-alpha hygrometer and a fine wire thermocouple were used to sense the fluctuating quantities.Diurnal fluxes of sensible heat, latent heat and CO₂ were calculated from these data. Energy budget closure was obtained by summing the sensible and latent heat fluxes determined by eddy correlation which balanced the sum of net radiation and soil heat flux. Peak daytime CO₂ fluxes were near 1.0 mg m^–2 (ground area) s^–1.The eddy correlation technique was also employed in this study to measure nocturnal CO₂ fluxes caused by respiration from plants, soil, and roots. These CO₂ fluxes ranged from - 0.1 to - 0.25 mg m^–2s^–1.From the data collected over mature soybeans, a relationship between CO₂ flux and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was developed. The crop did not appear to be light-saturated at PAR flux densities < 1800 Ei m^–2 s^–1. The light compensation point was found to be about 160 Ei m^–2 s^–1.Published as Paper No. 7402, Journal Series, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station. The work reported here was conducted under Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Project 27-003 and Regional Research Project 11–33.Post-doctoral Research Associate, Professor and Professor, respectively. Center for Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728.