Study of Aerodynamics of a Prospective Descent Module Descending in the Atmosphere of Mars

Solar System Research - The paper presents the methods and the calculation results for the flow around a prospective descent module and physicochemical processes in the flow field near the vehicle...     

Convective vortices on Mars: a reanalysis of Viking Lander 2 meteorological data, sols 1-60

Dust devil data from Mars is limited by a lack of data relating to diurnal dust devil behaviour. Previous work looking at the Viking Lander meteorological data highlighted seasonal changes in temporal occurrence of dust devils and gave an indication of typical dust devil diameter, size, and internal dynamics. The meteorological data from Viking Lander 2 for sols 1 to 60 have been revisited to provide detailed diurnal dust devil statistics. Results of our analysis show that the Viking Lander 2 experienced a possible 38 convective vortices in the first 60 sols of its mission with a higher occurrence in the morning compared to Earth, possibly as a result of turbulence generated by the Lander body. Dust devil events have been categorised by statistical confidence and intensity. Some initial analysis and discussion of the results is also presented. Assuming a similar dust loading to the vortices seen by Mars Pathfinder, it is estimated that the amount of dust lofted in the locality of the Lander is approximately 800 ± 10 kgsol⁻¹km⁻².     

On the Dynamics of Atmospheric Gas Filling the Interior of a Prospective Descent Module During Descent in the Atmosphere of Mars

Solar System Research - The article presents the calculation technique and the results of a study of the penetration of hot gas from the shock layer into the internal space of the prospective...     

Investigation of water vapor on Mars with PFS/SW of Mars Express

New insight into the seasonal, diurnal and spatial distribution of water vapor on Mars has been obtained from analyzing the spectra of the short-wavelength channel (SW) of the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) onboard Mars Express. The processed dataset, recorded between January 2004 and April 2005, covers the seasons from LS=331° of Mars Year 26 to LS=196° of the following year. In this period the mean column density around vernal equinox was 8.2 pr. μm. The maximum values during northern summer were about 65 pr. μm, located around 75° N latitude with a longitudinally inhomogeneous distribution. Regarding the atmospheric transport, the majority of polar water vapor remains in the north polar region while only about a quarter is transported southward. Geographically there are two water vapor maxima visible, over Arabia Terra and the Tharsis plateau, that are most likely caused both by atmosphere-ground interaction and by atmospheric circulation. A comparison with other instruments generally shows a good agreement, only the SPICAM results are systematically lower. Compared to the results from the PFS long-wavelength channel the results of this work are slightly higher. A strong discrepancy is visible northward of about 50° N during the northern summer that is possibly explained by a non-uniform vertical H₂O mixing. In particular, a confinement of the water to the lower few kilometers yields a much better agreement between the retrieved column densities of the two PFS channels.     

Comparison of enhanced Mariner 9 and Viking imagery of Mars for analysis of short term geological phenomenon

Enhanced Mariner 9 imagery of Mars, which has been used in short term phenomenon study with Viking imagery, does not have a resolution useful for analysis of short term geological phenomenon such as slump formation.     

Fluctuations in the Intensity of Radiation Emerging from a Multicomponent Stochastic Atmosphere. II

This part of a series of papers examines the more general problem in which it is assumed that the fluctuations in the intensity of radiation emerging from a medium are caused by random variations in both the optical thickness of the structural elements and the power of the energy sources contained in them. The frequency dependence of the relative mean square deviation (RelMSD) is investigated for different possible relationships among the parameters of the fine structure components. It is shown that the level of fluctuations at the central frequencies of a line can be greater than or smaller than in the far wings. The dependence of the RelMSD on the number of components and the number of possible realizations of their optical properties is discussed. The influence of random variations in the scattering coefficient on the observed integral intensity of a spectrum line is also examined. Observations of several relatively strong EUV lines from the SOHO/ SUMER space program are presented for comparison. These data indicate that there is a correlation between the frequency dependence of the RelMSD and the characteristic temperature for formation of these lines.__________Translated from Astrofizika, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 303–313 (May 2005).     

Water distribution in Martian permafrost regions from joint analysis of HEND (Mars Odyssey) and MOLA (Mars Global Surveyor) data

We jointly analyze data from the High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) onboard the NASA Mars Odyssey spacecraft and data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) onboard the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft. The former instrument measures the content of hydrogen (in the form of H₂O or OH) in the subsurface layer of soil and the latter instrument measures the surface albedo with respect to the flux of solar energy. We have checked the presence of a correlation between these two data sets in various Martian latitude bands. A significant correlation has been found between these data at latitudes poleward of 40° in the northern hemisphere and at latitudes 40°–60° in the southern hemisphere. This correlation is interpreted as evidence for the presence of stable water ice in these regions under a dry layer of soil whose thickness is determined by the condition for equilibrium between the condensation of water from the atmosphere and its sublimation when heated by solar radiation. For these regions, we have derived an empirical relation between the flux of absorbed solar radiation and the thickness of the top dry layer. It allows the burial depth of the water ice table to be predicted with a sub-kilometer resolution based on near-infrared albedo measurements. We have found no correlation in the southern hemisphere at latitudes >60°, although neutron data also suggest that water ice is present in this region under a layer of dry soil. We conclude that the thickness of the dry layer in this region does not correspond to the equilibrium condition between the water ice table and the atmosphere.     

Comparative planetology, climatology and biology of Venus, Earth and Mars

Spacecraft studies of the three terrestrial planets with atmospheres have made it possible to make meaningful comparisons that shed light on their common origin and divergent evolutionary paths. Early in their histories, all three apparently had oceans and extensive volcanism; Mars and Earth, at least, had magnetic fields, and Earth, at least, had life. All three currently have climates determined by energy balance relationships involving carbon dioxide, water and aerosols, regulated by solar energy deposition, atmospheric and ocean circulation, composition, and cloud physics and chemistry.This paper addresses the extent to which current knowledge allows us to explain the observed state of each planet, its planetology, climatology and biology, within a common framework. Areas of ignorance and mysteries are explored, and prospects for advances in resolving these with missions within the present planning horizon of the space agencies are considered and assessed.     

Temporal changes in the Cerberus region of Mars: Mariner 9 and Viking comparisons

As in seen from comparisons of Mariner 9 images obtained in 1972 and Viking Orbiter 1 images obtained in 1978, several changes have occurred in the Cerberus region of Mars. Changes in the boundary of the low albedo feature resulted in an increase of the total area of Cerberus by slightly more than 1%, although the southwestern boundary had shifted as much as 90 km. Relative darkening of Cerberus has resulted in a more uniform tone, and is accompanied by the disappearance of dark filamentary markings. Although several bright streaks within Cerberus changed in length, neither lengthening nor shortening of the streaks predominated. However, changes in streak direction indicate a clockwise rotation of mean streak azimuth between 1972 and 1978. These changes in the outline and appearance of Cerberus can best be explained by eolian redistribution and removal of bright material during major dust storms. Volcanic flow fronts which show through the albedo feature indicate that the contrast between Cerberusand the surrounding light plains is not due to a difference in lithology, but to the distribution of surficial deposits. Because of local topographic influences on the regional atmospheric circulation patterns, it is probable that Cerberus will retain a similar appearance and location.     

New Millimeter Heterodyne Observations of Titan: Vertical Distributions of Nitriles HCN, HC3N, CH3CN, and the Isotopic Ratio N/N in Its Atmosphere

High sensitivity observations were performed at 1.2- and 3-mm wavelengths with the IRAM 30-m telescope (Spain) between April 1996 and December 1999 to investigate the nitrile composition of Titan's stratosphere. A part of our dataset consists of high resolution spectra of HC¹⁴N taken at 88.6 GHz as well as spectra of HC¹⁵N recorded at 258.16 GHz. From a thorough analysis of both lines and with the help of appropriate radiative transfer calculations we show that the isotopic ratio ¹⁵N/¹⁴N is strongly enhanced compared to the terrestrial value. We propose that the range 3.9-4.5 should be considered as a basis for the enrichment factor. Five individual lines of HC₃N were measured at 39-kHz resolution using a frequency-switched technique. Several CH₃CN features were recorded at 78-kHz resolution in two transitions around 147.6 and 220.7 GHz. The high spectral resolution and the good signal-to-noise ratio affecting the spectra permit us to retrieve disk-averaged vertical profiles for HCN up to 450 km and for HC₃N and CH₃CN up to 500 km. Comparison of our inferred vertical profiles with relevant results of presently published photochemical models is presented. We show that the profiles of HCN and HC₃N predicted by various authors below 450-km altitude appear inconsistent with our new observations. We find that the three distributions present very different gradients of abundance below 200-km altitude down to the condensation levels around 80 km. In the upper stratosphere HC₃N and CH₃CN have approximately the same mixing ratio of about 4×10⁻⁸ at 450 km, at least one order of magnitude lower than that of HCN. In the same time, another nitrile HC₅N has been searched for by observing four transitions located between 109 and 221 GHz. As no spectral features could be detected after several hours of integration time, we propose an upper limit for the mixing ratio equal to 4×10⁻¹⁰ assuming a uniform distribution of this compound in the lower stratosphere.     

Incorporation of argon, krypton and xenon into clathrates on Mars

Calculations of the trapping of heavy noble gases within multiple guest clathrates under Mars-like conditions show that a substantial fraction of the martian Xe, perhaps even the vast majority, could be in clathrates. In addition, the Xe/Kr ratio in the clathrates would probably be much higher than in the atmosphere, so the formation or dissociation of a relatively small amount of clathrate could measurably change the atmospheric ratio. Relatively crude (factor of 2) measurements of the seasonal variability in that ratio by in situ spacecraft would be sensitive to ∼10% of the seasonal atmospheric CO₂ variability being a result of clathrates, rather than pure CO₂ frost. In addition, sequestration of Xe in clathrates remains a viable mechanism for explaining the variable Xe/Kr ratios seen in different suites of martian meteorites.     

Viking observation of water vapor on Mars: Revision from up-to-date spectroscopy and atmospheric models

A reanalysis of the Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD, Viking 1 and 2 Orbiters) Planetary Data System (PDS) data set (Jakosky, B.M., Farmer, C.B. [1982]. J. Geophys. Res. 87 (B4), 2999-3019) is presented taking into account a new spectroscopic database and improved atmospheric model assumptions. Starting from HITRAN 2004 edition and later (Rothman, L.S., and 29 colleagues [2005]. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Trans. 96, 139-204), the number of lines in the 1.38-μm band has been significantly increased, and their parameters have been modified. The implication of this new spectroscopic data and atmospheric model based on Martian Climate Database (MCD, Forget, F., Hourdin, F., Fournier, R., Hourdin, C., Talagrand, O., Collins, M., Lewis, S.R., Read, P.L., Huot, J.-P. [1999]. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (E10), 24155-24176) gives a significant impact on the H₂O retrieval: the total H₂O abundance after the reanalysis has decreased twofold in all seasons and most of geographic locations. Overall decrease is associated with larger cumulative strength of the band in HITRAN 2004; low saturation height of water profiles imposed by MCD significantly contributes to decrease of summer polar maximum. Revised MAWD data are compared with later H₂O measurements on Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and Mars-Express (MEX). A good agreement with SPICAM/MEX near-IR (1.38-μm band) measurements is found. However, both sets of near-IR measurements are systematically below TES/MGS results obtained in thermal infrared, with a factor of 1.5-2.0. This difference might be associated with remaining ambiguity of the near IR spectral data, and of line broadening in CO₂ in both spectral ranges. The reanalyzed MAWD data are in much better agreement with later measurements suggesting more homogeneous, and significantly dryer water cycle on Mars, with no signature of change between the Viking epoch (MY12-14) and MGS-Mars-Express measurements (MY24-29).     

火星上游离子回旋波的观测研究

离子回旋波(Ion Cyclotron Wave, ICW)是指频率接近离子回旋频率的一种等离子体波,它在火星上游广泛存在,卫星观测到的频率多在质子回旋频率附近. ICW是拾起离子时的副产物,成为新生行星质子存在的间接标志.火星上游ICW自1990年首次报道以来,受到广泛的关注.总结了火星上游ICW的研究进展,包括ICW事件的观测、ICW的产生机制、统计性质以及将来的研究趋势.     

Water vapor variability in the north polar region of Mars from Viking MAWD and MGS TES datasets

Atmospheric water vapor abundances in Mars’ north polar region (NPR, from 60° to 90°N) are mapped as function of latitude and longitude for spring and summer seasons, and their spatial, seasonal, and interannual variability is discussed. Water vapor data are from Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and the Viking Orbiter (VO) Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD). The data cover three complete northern spring-summer seasons in 1977-1978, 2000-2001 and 2002-2003, and shorter periods of spring-summer seasons during 1975, 1999 and 2004. Long term interannual variability in the averaged NPR abundances may exist, with Viking MAWD observations showing twice as much water vapor during summer as the MGS TES observations more than 10 martian years (MY) later. While the averaged abundances are very similar in TES observations for the same season in different years, the spatial distributions in the early summer season do vary significantly year over year. Spatial and temporal variabilities increase between L_s ∼ 80-140°, which may be related to vapor sublimation from the North Polar Residual Cap (NPRC), or to changes in circulation. Spatial variability is observed on scales of ∼100 km and temporal variability is observed on scales of <10 sols during summer. During late spring the TES water vapor spatial distribution is seen to correlate with the low topography/low albedo region of northern Acidalia Planitia (270-360°E), and with the dust spatial distribution across the NPR during late spring-early summer. Non-uniform vertical distribution of water vapor, a regolith source or atmospheric circulation ‘pooling’ of water vapor from the NPRC into the topographic depression may be behind the correlation with low topography/low albedo. Sublimation winds carrying water vapor off the NPRC and lifting surface dust in the areas surrounding the NPRC may explain the correlation between the water vapor and dust spatial distributions. Correlation between water vapor and dust in MAWD data are only observed over low topography/low albedo area. Maximum water vapor abundances are observed at L_s = 105-115° and outside of the NPRC at 75-80°N; the TES data, however, do not extend over the NPRC and thus, this conclusion may be biased. Some water vapor appears to be released in plumes or ‘outbursts’ in the MAWD and TES datasets during late spring and early summer. We propose that the sublimation rate of ice varies across the NPRC with varying surface winds, giving rise to the observed ‘outbursts’ at some seasons.     

Methane on Mars: A product of H2O photolysis in the presence of CO

We suggest that the methane observed on Mars can be formed by photolysis of water vapor in the presence of CO, in addition to possible geological sources, rather than biologically.     

Topography and Geologic Characteristics of Aeolian Grooves in the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars

The topographic and geologic characteristics of grooves and groove-like features in the south polar layered deposits near the Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 landing sites are evaluated using Mariner 9 images and their derived photoclinometry, normalized using Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter data. Although both Mariner 9 and Viking images of the south polar layered deposits were available at the time of this study, Mariner 9 images of the grooves were selected because they were generally of higher resolution than Viking images. The dimensions and slopes of the grooves, together with orientations that nearly match the strongest winds predicted in the Martian Global Circulation Model and directions inferred from other wind indicators, suggest that they formed by aeolian scour of an easily erodible surface. Most grooves are symmetric and V-shaped in transverse profile, inconsistent with an origin involving extensional brittle deformation. Although the grooves strike along slopes and terraces of the south polar layered deposits, the variable depths and lack of terracing within the grooves themselves indicate that any stratigraphy in the uppermost 100 m of the polar layered deposits is composed of layers of similar, and relatively low, resistance. The grooves do not represent landing hazards at the scale of the Mariner 9 images (72-86 m/pixel) and therefore probably would not have affected Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2, had they successfully reached the surface.     

Mapping of Ozone and Water in the Atmosphere of Mars near the 1997 Aphelion

We present absolute abundances and latitudinal variations of ozone and water in the atmosphere of Mars during its late northern spring (L_s=67.3°) shortly before aphelion. Long-slit maps of the a¹Δ_g state of molecular oxygen (O₂) and HDO, an isotopic form of water, were acquired on UT January 21.6 1997 using a high-resolution infrared spectrometer (CSHELL) at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility. O₂(a¹Δ_g) is produced by ozone photolysis, and the ensuing dayglow emission at 1.27 μm is used as a tracer for ozone. Retrieved vertical column densities for ozone above ∼20 km ranged between 1.5 and 2.8 μm-atm at mid- to low latitudes (30°S-60°N) and decreased outside that region. A significant decrease in ozone density is seen near 30°N (close to the subsolar latitude of 23.5°N). The rotational temperatures retrieved from O₂(a-X) emissions show a mean of 172±2.5 K, confirming that the sensed ozone lies in the middle atmosphere (∼24 km). The ν₁ fundamental band of HDO near 3.67 μm was used as a proxy for H₂O. The retrieved vertical column abundance of water varies from 3 precipitable microns (pr-μm) at ∼30°S to 24 pr-μm at ∼60°N. We compare these results with current photochemical models and with measurements obtained by other methods.     

Raman spectroscopic detection of key biomarkers of cyanobacteria and lichen symbiosis in extreme Antarctic habitats: Evaluation for Mars Lander missions

With proposals that micro-miniaturised Raman spectrometers could soon be part of a suite of analytical instrumentation on the surface of Mars, it is critically important to examine the spectral information that could be forthcoming from attempts to determine key molecular biosignatures under the hostile conditions of extra-terrestrial planetary exploration. Current approaches include the analysis of genuine martian geological material in the form of the SNC class meteorites, the formulation of simulated martian regoliths and the examination of putative martian terrestrial analogues; the latter provide the basis of this paper in the form of Antarctic extremophile habitats. In particular, specimens of epilithic, chasmolithic and endolithic lichen and cyanobacterial colonies sampled along a progressively worsening transect towards a “limits of life” situation, beyond which survival of organisms becomes impossible, provide what is arguably the best terrestrial proving-ground for prototype Raman spectrometers for martian exploration. Here, we report the results of experiments on these extant Antarctic extremophile colonies using a range of Raman excitation wavelengths and experimental conditions and also include a compilation of molecular spectral biosignatures, which may be considered as a suitable database for recognition of bioorganic modification of geological strata.     

Kinetic modeling of sodium in the lunar exosphere

Our knowledge about the lunar environment is based on a large volume of ground-based, remote, and in situ observations. These observations have been conducted at different times and sampled different pieces of such a complex system as the surface-bound exosphere of the Moon. Numerical modeling is the tool that can link results of these separate observations into a single picture. Being validated against previous measurements, models can be used for predictions and interpretation of future observations results.     

Long-term spectroscopic observations of Mars using IRTF/CSHELL: Mapping of O2 dayglow, CO, and search for CH4

Long-term spectroscopic observations of the O₂ dayglow at 1.27 μm result in a map of the latitudinal and seasonal behavior of the dayglow intensity for the full martian year. The O₂ dayglow is a sensitive tracer of Mars' photochemistry, and this map reflects variations of Mars' photochemistry at low and middle latitudes. It may be used to test photochemical models. Long-term observations of the CO mixing ratio have been also combined into the seasonal-latitudinal map. Seasonal and latitudinal variations of the mixing ratios of CO and the other incondensable gases (N₂, Ar, O₂, and H₂) discovered in our previous work are caused by condensation and sublimation of CO₂ to and from the polar regions. They reflect dynamics of the atmosphere and polar processes. The observed map may be used to test global circulation models of the martian atmosphere. The observed global abundances of CO are in reasonable agreement with the predicted variations with the 11-year solar cycle. Despite the perfect observing conditions, methane has not been detected using the IRTF/CSHELL with a 3σ upper limit of 14 ppb. This upper limit does not rule out the value of 10 ppb observed using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope and the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer.