Acceleration of auroral particles by magnetic-field aligned electric fields

Measurements on the S3-3 and Viking satellites appear to show that at least a large fraction of magnetic field-aligned potential drops are made up of multiple double layers. Solitons and double layers inU-shaped potential structures give rise to spiky electric fields also perpendicular to the magnetic field in agreement with satellite measurements. The large scale potential structures associated with invertedV-events are built up of many similar short-lived structures on a small scale. Viking measurements indicate that electric fields parallel to the magnetic field are almost always directed upward.Paper dedicated to Professor Hannes Alfvén on the occasion of his 80th birthday, 30 May 1988.     

Iron(VI) Seems an Unlikely Explanation for Viking Labeled Release Results

Tsapin et al. (2000, Icarus147, 68-78) propose the strong oxidant ferrate(VI) to explain the Viking Labeled Release Mars life detection results. However, their data do not support that theory. Further, sensitive IR searches for oxidants on Mars found none, and Viking produced physical evidence against an oxidizing surface. Finally, Tsapin et al. (2000, Icarus147, 68-78) report no precautions to prevent microbial contamination from confounding their results.     

Viking 1 Lander on the surface of mars: Revised location

Late in 1977, the periapsis altitude of the Viking Orbiters was lowered from 1500 to 300 km. The higher resolution of pictures taken at the lower altitude (8 m/pixel) permitted a more accurate determination of the location of the Viking 1 Lander by correlating topographic features seen in the new pictures with the same features in lander pictures. The position of the lander on Viking Orbiter picture 452B11 (NGF Rectilinear) is line 293, sample 1099. This location of the Viking 1 Lander has been used in a revision of the control net of Mars (M.E. Davies, F.Y. Katayama, and J.A. Roth, R2309 NASA, The Rand Corp., Feb. 1978). The new areographic coordinates of the lander are lat 22.483° N and long 47.968° W. The new location is estimated to be accurate to within 50 m.     

Surface erosion caused on Mars from Viking descent engine plume

During the Martian landings the descent engine plumes on Viking Lander 1 (VL-1) and Viking Lander 2 (VL-2) eroded the Martian surface materials. This had been anticipated and investigated both analytically and experimentally during the design phase of the Viking spacecraft. This paper presents data on erosion obtained during the tests of the Viking descent engine and the evidence for erosion by the descent engines of VL-1 and VL-2 on Mars. From these and other results, it is concluded that there are four distinct surface materials on Mars: (1) drift material, (2) crusty to cloddy material, (3) blocky material, and (4) rock.Work performed as part of NASA contract W 14,575.     

Photogrammetric application of viking orbital photography

Special techniques are described for the photogrammetric compilation of topographic maps and profiles from stereoscopic photographs taken by the two Viking Orbiter spacecraft. These techniques were developed because the extremely narrow field of view of the Viking cameras precludes compilation by conventional photogrammetric methods. The techniques adjust for internal consistency the Supplementary Experiment Data Record (SEDR—the record of spacecraft orientation when photographs were taken) and the computation of geometric orientation parameters of the stereo models. A series of contour maps of Mars is being compiled by these new methods using a wide variety of Viking Orbiter photographs, to provide the planetary research community with topographic information.     

Thermal infrared opacity of the Mars atmosphere

A refined technique is presented for deriving 9-μm extinction opacities of the Mars atmosphere from brightness temperature measurements made by the Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper. Improvements include modeling of the vertical temperature profile, a surface-atmosphere temperature discontinuity, and the effects of surface emissitivity and particle scattering. The routine is applied to the Mars Average Data Set to yield zonal mean opacities for more than one Mars year. The mean 9-μm opacity for one year is 0.5, yet the mode value is only 0.056, due to the very skewed distribution. Time histories of opacity at the Viking Lander 1 and 2 sites are generated and compared to in situ data. Opacity maps are presented for the period L_s 168–270 covering the 1977a dust storm; these show the genesis and spread of the storm with 10° L_s resolution.     

Recession of Martian north polar cap: 1979–1980 Viking observations

The 1979–1980 regression curve for the north polar cap of Mars, determined from Viking orbiter images, is compared to Viking observations of the same season 1 (Martin) year earlier and to telescopic observations. Differences between the two years cannot unambigously be attributed to dynamical effects because of uncertainties introduced by limited longitudinal coverage.     

Determining asteroid masses from perturbations on Mars

The orbit of Mars is perturbed more than 5 m, a value compatible with the accuracy of the Viking lander ranging data, by about three dozen asteroids. In addition to larger asteroids throughout the belt, significant perturbations of long period are generated by smaller objects near commensurabilities with Mars. The largest periodic terms induced by 1 Ceres and 2 Pallas have amplitudes of 0.8 and 0.2 km, respectively, both with 10-year periods. Due to a near commensurability, 4 Vesta causes a 5-km, 52-year term. While the Viking ranges will yield significant mass determinations for the largest three asteroids, and some of the smaller bodies should be detectable, it will be difficult to seperate the smaller bodies with useful accuracies. Accurate discrimination must await range data from future missions to Mars or other bodies in the neighborhood of the asteroid belt. The Viking ranges can also yield improved masses for the outer planets (except Pluto), an application which is being exploited by groups analyzing these data. Uncertainties in the asteroid masses limit the ultimate accuracy of the Viking determinations of both the long time scale motion of the system the inner four planets with respect to an inertial frame and the rate of change of the gravitational constant.     

Inference of dust opacities for the 1977 Martian great dust storms from Viking Lander 1 pressure data

A δ-Eddington radiative transfer algorithm is used to compute the thermal tidal heating of a dusty Martian atmosphere for a given set of dust optical depth, effective single scattering albedo, and phase function asymmetry parameter. The resulting thermal tidal forcing is used in a classical atmospheric tidal model to compute the amplitudes of the surface pressure oscillations at the Viking Lander 1 site for the two 1977 Martian great dust storms. Parametric studies show that the dust opacities and optical parameters derived from the Viking Lander imaging data are roughly representative of the global dust haze needed to reproduce the tidal surface pressure amplitudes also observed at Lander 1, except that the model-inferred asymmetry parameter is smaller during the onset of a great storm. The observed preferential enhancement during dust-storm onset of the semidiurnal tide at Viking Lander 1 relative to its diurnal counterpart is shown to be due primarily to the elevation of the tidal heating source in a very dusty atmosphere, although resonant enhancement of the main semidiurnal tidal mode makes an important secondary contribution.     

Convective vortices on Mars: a reanalysis of Viking Lander 2 meteorological data, sols 1-60

Dust devil data from Mars is limited by a lack of data relating to diurnal dust devil behaviour. Previous work looking at the Viking Lander meteorological data highlighted seasonal changes in temporal occurrence of dust devils and gave an indication of typical dust devil diameter, size, and internal dynamics. The meteorological data from Viking Lander 2 for sols 1 to 60 have been revisited to provide detailed diurnal dust devil statistics. Results of our analysis show that the Viking Lander 2 experienced a possible 38 convective vortices in the first 60 sols of its mission with a higher occurrence in the morning compared to Earth, possibly as a result of turbulence generated by the Lander body. Dust devil events have been categorised by statistical confidence and intensity. Some initial analysis and discussion of the results is also presented. Assuming a similar dust loading to the vortices seen by Mars Pathfinder, it is estimated that the amount of dust lofted in the locality of the Lander is approximately 800 ± 10 kgsol⁻¹km⁻².     

Manganese oxides as high-pε redox buffers on Mars

The x-ray photoelectron spectrum of Mn(VI) is closely similar to that of uv-irradiated MnO₂, previously reported to simulate the Viking gas exchange reaction. β-MnO₂ is the thermodynamically stable form of manganese on the surface of Mars, and MnO₂ abundances estimated from shergottite, nakhlite, and chassignite iron/manganese ratios are sufficient to account for the oxidant buffer capacity observed by Viking.     

Viking lander tracking contributions to mars mapping

The major recent advances in planetary mapping have been accomplished through use of photography from orbiting satellites, as is the case for Mars with Mariner and Viking photographs. The requirement for greater precision demands that inputs to the photogrammatic process be more precisely defined. This paper describes how analyses of Doppler and ranging data from the Viking landers are contributing to more precise mapping of Mars in several specific areas.Presented at the IAU-COSPAR Julius Schmidt Symposium on 100 Years of Lunar Mapping held at Lagonissi, Greece, 25–27 May, 1978     

A coupled soil-atmosphere model of H2O2 on Mars

The Viking Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer failed to detect organic compounds on Mars, and both the Viking Labeled Release and the Viking Gas Exchange experiments indicated a reactive soil surface. These results have led to the widespread belief that there are oxidants in the martian soil. Since H2O2 is produced by photochemical processes in the atmosphere of Mars, and has been shown in the laboratory to reproduce closely the Viking LR results, it is a likely candidate for a martian soil oxidant. Here, we report on the results of a coupled soil/atmosphere transport model for H2O2 on Mars. Upon diffusing into the soil, its concentration is determined by the extent to which it is adsorbed and by the rate at which it is catalytically destroyed. An analytical model for calculating the distribution of H2O2 in the martian atmosphere and soil is developed. The concentration of H2O2 in the soil is shown to go to zero at a finite depth, a consequence of the nonlinear soil diffusion equation. The model is parameterized in terms of an unknown quantity, the lifetime of H2O2 against heterogeneous catalytic destruction in the soil. Calculated concentrations are compared with a H2O2 concentration of 30 nmoles/cm3, inferred from the Viking Labeled Release experiment. A significant result of this model is that for a wide range of H2O2 lifetimes (up to 10(5) years), the extinction depth was found to be less than 3 m. The maximum possible concentration in the top 4 cm is calculated to be approximately 240 nmoles/cm3, achieved with lifetimes of greater than 1000 years. Concentrations higher than 30 nmoles/cm3 require lifetimes of greater than 4.3 terrestrial years. For a wide range of H2O2 lifetimes, it was found that the atmospheric concentration is only weakly coupled with soil loss processes. Losses to the soil become significant only when lifetimes are less than a few hours. If there are depths below which H2O2 is not transported, it is plausible that organic compounds, protected from an oxidizing environment, may still exist. They would have been deposited by meteors, or be the organic remains of past life.     

Inorganic chemical investigation by x-ray fluorescence analysis: The Viking Mars Lander

The inorganic chemical investigation added in August 1972 to the Viking Lander scientific package will utilize an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer in which four sealed, gas-filled proportional counters will detect X-rays emitted from samples of the Martian surface materials irradiated by X-rays from radioisotope sources (⁵⁵Fe and ¹⁰⁹Cd). The output of the proportional counters will be subjected to pulse-height analysis by an on-board step-scanning single-channel analyzer with adjustable counting periods. The data will be returned to Earth, via the Viking Orbiter relay system, and the spectra constructed, calibrated, and interpreted here. The instrument is inside the Lander body, and samples are to be delivered to it by the Viking Lander Surface Sampler. Calibration standards are an integral part of the instrument.The results of the investigation will characterize the surface materials of Mars as to elemental composition with accuracies ranging from a few tens of parts per million (at the trace-element level) to a few percent (for major elements) depending on the element in question. Elements of atomic number 11 or less are determined only as a group, though useful estimates of their individual abundances maybe achieved by indirect means. The expected radiation environment will not seriously hamper the measurements. Based on the results, inferences can be drawn regarding (1) the surface mineralogy and lithology; (2) the nature of weathering processes, past and present, and the question of equilibrium between the atmosphere and the surface; and (3) the extent and type of differentiation that the planet has undergone.The Inorganic Chemical Investigation supports and is supported by most other Viking Science investigations.     

Comparison of enhanced Mariner 9 and Viking imagery of Mars for analysis of short term geological phenomenon

Enhanced Mariner 9 imagery of Mars, which has been used in short term phenomenon study with Viking imagery, does not have a resolution useful for analysis of short term geological phenomenon such as slump formation.     

Location of Viking 1 Lander on the surface of Mars

A location of the Viking 1 Lander on the surface of Mars has been determined by correlating topographic features in the lander pictures with similar features in the Viking orbiter pictures. Radio tracking data narrowed the area of search for correlating orbiter and lander features and an area was found on the orbiter pictures in which there is good agreement with topographic features on the lander pictures. This location, when plotted on the 1:250,000 scale photomosaic of the Yorktown Region of Mars (U.S. Geological Survey, 1977) is at 22.487°N latitude and 48.041°W longitude.     

Horizon Topography and the Location Of Viking Lander 2

The location of Viking Lander 2 on Mars is determined by matching features seen on the horizon with hills visible in Viking Orbiter images. Three possible positions are found, with one being preferred, confirming and refining the position determined previously by radio tracking. The often stated opinion that a lobe of ejecta from the large crater Mie is visible in lander images is shown to be false. The most prominent hill on the eastern horizonis Goldstone, a pedestal crater 8 km from the lander. Another hill16 km from the preferred position is just visible to the north. The image processing procedures used to enhance visibility of low relief features on the horizon should be useful for several future missions. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Crater streaks in the Chryse Planitia region of Mars: Early Viking results

High-resolution images of Chryse Planitia and eastern Lunae Planum from the early revolutions of Viking Orbiter I permit detailed analyses of crater-associated streaks and interpretation of related eolian processes. A total of 614 light and dark streaks were studied and treated statistically in relation to: (1) morphology, morphometry, and orientation, (2) “parent” crater size and morphology, (3) terrain type in which they occured, (4) topographic elevation, and (5) meteorological data currently being acquired by Viking Lander I. Three factors are apparent: (1) light streaks predominate, (2) most streaks form in association with fresh bowl-shaped craters, and (3) most light streaks are of the “parallel” type, whereas dark streaks are approximately evenly divided between convergent and parallel forms; moreover, very few light or dark streaks are divergent or fan-shaped. Light streaks have an average azimuth of 218° (corresponding to winds from the northeast), which approximates the orientation of 197 ± 14° for eolian “drifts” observed by the Viking Lander imaging team (Binder et al., 1977). This lends support to the hypothesis that light streaks are deposits of windblown sediments. Dark streaks are oriented at an azimuth of 42° (approximately opposite that of light streaks) and are nearly in line with the dominant wind direction currently recorded by the Viking meteorology instruments (Hess et al., 1977). Although the size of the sample area is not uniform among the various terrain types, the highest frequency of streaks per unit area occurs in the knobby terrain. This is partly explained by the probable production of fine-grained material (weathered from the knobs) to form streaks and other eolian features, and the higher wind turbulence generated around the knobs. The lowest frequency of streaks occurs on the elevated plateaus. The light streaks in Chryse Planitia appear to be relatively stable and to result from deposition of windblown material during times of relatively high velocity northeasterly winds. Dark streaks are more variable and probably result from erosion by southwesterly winds. Both types will be monitored during the extended Viking mission and the results compared with lander data.     

Differential transmission of sunlight on Mars: Biological implications

A euphotic zone seems to exist at about 1 cm subsurface in the Martian epilith. At this depth visible light is still intense enough to be utilized by conceivable photosynthetic organisms; but the germicidal ultraviolet intensities at the Martian surface have been reduced to values manageable by terrestrial life. Such euphotic zone organisms would experience moderately high Martian temperatures at equatorial latitudes and can be dispersed readily during global dust stroms. During such storms the Martian euphotic zone may reach the surface. The aerosol content of the Martian atmosphere can be monitored by multiband single line scans of the sun at large zenith angles by the Viking lander camera; and the postulated euphotic zone organisms can be searched for with the Viking lander sample arm and biology experiments.     

Possibilities for the detection of hydrogen peroxide-water-based life on Mars by the Phoenix Lander

The Phoenix Lander landed on Mars on 25 May 2008. It has instruments on board to explore the geology and climate of subpolar Mars and to explore if life ever arose on Mars. Although the Phoenix mission is not a life detection mission per se, it will look for the presence of organic compounds and other evidence to support or discredit the notion of past or present life.The possibility of extant life on Mars has been raised by a reinterpretation of the Viking biology experiments [Houtkooper, J. M., Schulze-Makuch, D., 2007. A possible biogenic origin for hydrogen peroxide on Mars: the Viking results reinterpreted. International Journal of Astrobiology 6, 147-152]. The results of these experiments are in accordance with life based on a mixture of water and hydrogen peroxide instead of water. The near-surface conditions on Mars would give an evolutionary advantage to organisms employing a mixture of H₂O₂ and H₂O in their intracellular fluid: the mixture has a low freezing point, is hygroscopic and provides a source of oxygen. The H₂O₂-H₂O hypothesis also explains the Viking results in a logically consistent way. With regard to its compatibility with cellular contents, H₂O₂ is used for a variety of purposes in terran biochemistry. The ability of the anticipated organisms to withstand low temperatures and the relatively high water vapor content of the atmosphere in the Martian arctic, means that Phoenix will land in an area not inimical to H₂O₂-H₂O-based life. Phoenix has a suite of instruments which may be able to detect the signatures of such putative organisms.