Rainfall-triggering response patterns of post-seismic debris flows in the Wenchuan earthquake area

Several giant debris flows occurred in southwestern China after the Wenchuan earthquake, causing serious casualties and economic losses. Debris flows were frequently triggered after the earthquake. A relatively accurate prediction of these post-seismic debris flows can help to reduce the consequent damages. Existing debris flow prediction is almost based on the study of the relationship between post-earthquake debris flows and rainfall. The relationship between the occurrence of post-seismic debris flows and characteristic rainfall patterns was studied in this paper. Fourteen rainfall events related to debris flows that occurred in four watersheds in the Wenchuan earthquake area were collected. By analyzing the rainfall data, characteristics of rainfall events that triggered debris flows after the earthquake were obtained. Both the critical maximum rainfall intensity and average rainfall intensity increased with the time. To describe the critical conditions for debris flow initiation, intensity–duration curves were constructed, which shows how the threshold for triggering debris flows increased each year. The time that the critical rainfall intensities of debris flow occurrences return to the value prior to the earthquake could not be estimated due to the absent rainfall data before the earthquake. Rainfall-triggering response patterns could be distinguished for rainfall-induced debris flows. The critical rainfall patterns related to debris flows could be divided on the basis of antecedent rainfall duration and intensity into three categories: (1) a rapid triggering response pattern, (2) an intermediate triggering response pattern, and (3) a slow triggering response pattern. The triggering response patterns are closely related to the initiation mechanisms of post-earthquake debris flows. The main difference in initiation mechanisms and difference in triggering patterns by rainfall is regulated by the infiltration process and determined by a number of parameters, such as hydro-mechanical soil characteristics, the thickness of the soil, and the slope gradient. In case of a rapid triggering response rainfall pattern, the hydraulic conductivity and initial moisture content are the main impact factors. Runoff erosion and rapid loading of solid material is the dominant process. In case of a rainfall pattern with a slow triggering response, the thickness and strength of the soil, high hydraulic conductivity, and rainfall intensity are the impact factors. Probably slope failure is the most dominant process initiating debris flows. In case of an intermediate triggering response pattern, both debris flow initiation mechanisms (runoff erosion and slope failure) can play a role.     

岷江上游松坪沟地震山地灾害与生态环境保护

根据对岷江上游主干支流松坪沟河谷地震诱发山地灾害的最新调研资料，在阐述1933年8月叠溪7.5级地震在松坪沟河谷诱发的山地灾害类型及其特基础上，总结分析其发育分布规律，叙述了诱发的崩塌、滑坡和碎屑流等山地灾害及对松坪沟造成的堰塞，形成一系列景观独特的堰塞湖（海子）。文章重点对公棚海子崩塌堰塞湖、下白蜡寨滑坡堰塞湖、上白蜡寨碎屑流堰塞湖等典型实例的形成演化机制进行剖析，最后，提出了恢复和保护松平沟生态环境的对策与建议。     

Remediation and analysis of kinematic behaviour of a roadway landslide in the upper Minjiang River, Southwest China

Because of terrain, geological structure, river down-incising and human activities, the upriver Minjiang Valley in Sichuan Province, Southwest China, constitutes a disaster area prone to frequent landslides. During the roadway rebuilding periods, the Xiaozongqu landslide reactivated on the G213 Roadway in Maoxian District of Sichuan Province. From the September to November in 2002, the landslide sped up, reaching a maximum movement rate of 32 mm/d. The rapid slide seriously threatened the road. To stabilize the landslide and eliminate the damage of landslide to the road, remedying its damage and monitoring further developments are crucial. Based on its kinematic behaviour, remediation was implemented in two phases from November 2002 to October 2003. Systematic monitoring has been carried out since 18 June 2003 to determine kinematic variations of the landslide during the post-remediation period and to assess the effects of remediation and the potential of the landslide for further destructive influences on the roadway.     

四川汶川Ms 8.0地震报道

据国家地震台网测定,北京时间2008年5月12日14时28分,在四川汶川县(北纬31度,东经103.4度)发生Ms 8.0级地震（图1）。宁夏、青海、甘肃、河南、山西、陕西、山东、云南、湖南、湖北、上海、重庆等省市均有震感……。这次地震造成约7万人死亡,1.7万人失踪,38多万人受伤,令人震撼。重灾区14个县（市）主要公路全部瘫痪,主要铁路、水库和城镇遭受重大破坏,特别是北川县城和映秀镇成为一片废墟,这次地震是继唐山地震之后我国又一个死亡和损失巨大的毁灭性地震。根据中国地震局台网中心和美国地质调查局公布资料,汶川地震的震中位于映秀镇西南2~3 km处,滑动面西倾,倾角40~59°,属于逆冲断裂型地震。主震之后一月时间内,记录了51次≥5级的余震,沿整个龙门山中段和北段分布。根据远程地震台站资料的反演结果显示汶川地震产生的破裂带长度超过300 km,震源深度在16~19 km,属于典型的大陆浅源地震,地震类型为单震—余震型,地震破裂属于单向扩展型,从西南震中区向北东方向快速扩展（图2）。汶川地震的发震构造为龙门山中央断裂带（传统上称为映秀-北川断裂）,是这条断裂向东逆冲运动的结果,从更大的大陆动力学尺度上考虑,这次地震破裂事件是印度/欧亚大陆持续汇聚作用下青藏高原向东扩展的表现（图3）。众所周知,龙门山构造带横亘于四川盆地和青藏高原之间,主体由三条主边界断裂组成,从西到东分别命名为茂-汶断裂、映秀-北川断裂、安县-灌县断裂。这些断裂主体形成于三叠纪印支运动时期,在中新生代多次活动。晚新生代以来,伴随着青藏高原向东构造挤出,龙门山构造带中、南段强烈挤压复活和基底拆离,形成青藏东缘宏伟的逆冲推覆构造和飞来峰群,其东缘映秀断裂向东逆冲运动,使彭-灌杂岩体推覆在龙门山前陆带中生界地层之上,推覆距离在几公里以上。野外调查和震后航空照片解译结果初步分析表明,汶川地震不仅使映秀-北川断裂发生破裂,摧毁了沿断裂带建设的所有城镇与乡村,最大地震烈度达到XI级,同时也使龙门山山前断裂带（灌县-安县断裂带）发生破裂。地震产生的地表破裂构造表现为地表拱曲、挤压脊、地震鼓包、张裂隙等。地表破裂构造几何特征指示断层由西向东逆冲运动,同震垂向位移量在2.5~3 m,北川以北伴有明显的右旋走滑分量。两个地点在这次地震中受到特别关注：一个汶川县映秀镇,另一个是北川县城。映秀镇靠近震中很近,映秀断裂恰好经过该镇,从而成为断裂的命名地点。它坐落在岷江及其支流的交汇处,其中发育至少三级河流阶地。汶川地震使该镇毁灭（图版Ⅰ）。北川县城远离震中150 km之遥,但整个县城完全被地震毁灭,是汶川地震中破坏程度最大、人员伤亡最多的县城。北川县城是北川断裂的命名地点,该断裂切过县城所在的峡谷地带,呈NE-SW向延伸。这次强震产生的动能不仅使北川县城产生毁灭性破坏,同时由于地震动触发的崩滑等山地灾害,导致人员的重大伤亡（图版Ⅱ）。汶川地震带给科学家带来诸多新的思考。历史地震记录显示,龙门山断裂带在历史上没有发生过>7级地震,中小地震数量也少。而位于龙门山断裂带以北的岷山构造带和以南的川滇断裂带,在历史上均发生过震级≧7级的强震,如1933年叠溪7.5级地震和1976年松潘7.2级地震（图4）,说明龙门山构造带长期处于构造应力能量的累积过程中。全球定位系统（GPS）重复测量结果也显示,横穿该带现今地壳近东西向缩短率很小,数量级在1~2 mm/a,与青藏高原其他边缘相比相对较弱。这种小应变构造区孕育大地震,在世界其它大陆地区很少见,其机理和破裂过程需要科学家深入的研究和持续的探索。     

岷江上游地质灾害发育分布规律初探

岷江上游地区现有地质灾害284处,主要发育于低山、中山、高山区,其发育面密度分别为7.3个/100km²、2.3个/100km²和0.64个/100km²,分别占全区地质灾害总数的6.7%、70.7%和20.8%。通过对地质灾害点的统计分析研究,找出岷江上游流域地质灾害的主控因素及其发育分布规律,为流域经济可持续发展和减灾防灾规划提供科学依据。     

岷江上游第四纪叠溪古堰塞湖的演化

采用岩性相和沉积体系的分析方法对岷江上游流域的阶地进行了研究．发现叠溪较场到太平村以北约28km的沿江河段内断续分布有湖相沉积。对太平村一带的三级阶地沉积识别出冲积扇沉积体系、湖泊沉积体系、河流沉积体系和风成、表生沉积体系。认为古堰塞湖发育2期高湖平面,其间存在低湖面期形成的古土壤层。根据最高湖泊沉积与堵江滑坡体的顶部高度对比和堰塞湖发育的时间计算,太平村地区相对叠溪校场地区存在着平均3．18m／ka的抬升运动。     

四川汶川Ms 8.0级地震的同震位移量

2008年5月12日四川汶川映秀发生了旷世罕见的8.0级大地震.这次震发生在盆地之间的龙门山断裂带,其主震震级之大、余震次数之多令世人震惊.     

Reconstruction of catastrophic outburst floods of the Diexi ancient landslide-dammed lake in the Upper Minjiang River,Eastern Tibetan Plateau

Natural Hazards - Landslide-dammed lake outburst floods (LLOFs) may pose serious safety threats to nearby residents and their livelihoods, as well as cause major damages to the downstream areas in...     

Landslide hazards triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M _s = 8.0; epicenter located at 31.0° N, 103.4° E), with a focal depth of 19.0 km was triggered by the reactivation of the Longmenshan fault in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China on 12 May 2008. This earthquake directly caused more than 15,000 geohazards in the form of landslides, rockfalls, and debris flows which resulted in about 20,000 deaths. It also caused more than 10,000 potential geohazard sites, especially for rockfalls, reflecting the susceptibility of high and steep slopes in mountainous areas affected by the earthquake. Landslide occurrence on mountain ridges and peaks indicated that seismic shaking was amplified by mountainous topography. Thirty-three of the high-risk landslide lakes with landslide dam heights greater than 10 m were classified into four levels: extremely high risk, high risk, medium risk, and low risk. The levels were created by comprehensively analyzing the capacity of landslide lakes, the height of landslide dams, and the composition and structure of materials that blocked rivers. In the epicenter area which was 300 km long and 10 km wide along the main seismic fault, there were lots of landslides triggered by the earthquake, and these landslides have a common characteristic of a discontinuous but flat sliding surface. The failure surfaces can be classified into the following three types based on their overall shape: concave, convex, and terraced. Field evidences illustrated that the vertical component of ground shaking had a significant effect on both building collapse and landslide generation. The ground motion records show that the vertical acceleration is greater than the horizontal, and the acceleration must be larger than 1.0 g in some parts along the main seismic fault. Two landslides are discussed as high speed and long runout cases. One is the Chengxi landslide in Beichuan County, and the other is the Donghekou landslide in Qingchuan County. In each case, the runout process and its impact on people and property were analyzed. The Chengxi landslide killed 1,600 people and destroyed numerous houses. The Donghekou landslide is a complex landslide–debris flow with a long runout. The debris flow scoured the bank of the Qingjiang River for a length of 2,400 m and subsequently formed a landslide dam. This landslide buried seven villages and killed more than 400 people.     

岷江较场台地地震裂缝形成机制及其边坡稳定影响

岷江上游的大、小海子是两个相连的地震滑坡、崩塌堰塞湖。几十年来对湖泊东岸较场镇台地的认识不一，其岸坡稳定问题是利用该天然湖泊建设水电站的关键。通过现场调查与钻探、测试，发现岷江上游的较场台地是一个向岷江凸出的、1万a前形成的湖相沉积台地。1933年，在强烈地震作用下，较场台地发生了强烈裂陷，未发生大规模的滑移，在台地上形成了两组近于垂直的地裂缝。进一步研究表明，这两组地裂缝虽然是在同一诱发因素下，在同一时间、同一地点形成的，但它们的形成机制却不同。一组走向近SN，是在强烈地震作用下，追踪岩体中原有的两组构造节理进一步裂开的产物，可称为地震构造追踪型地裂缝；另一组走向近EW，是顺向边坡中的层状岩体，在地震作用下沿软弱层发生层间滑动，地面被拉开、沉陷而形成的，可称为地震层间滑动型地裂缝。两种类型的地裂缝与层面的空间组合，控制着台地的稳定与演化。特别是当遇到类似1933年那样的地震，甚至由于两种地震地裂缝与层间错动面的存在，不需要那么高强度的地震，就可能诱发大规模的边坡稳定问题。这应该引起天龙湖水电站与213国道等管理部门的重视。     

Vertical acceleration effect on landsides triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake,China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake with Ms8.0 triggered extensive throwing-pattern landslides in the area within or near the seismic faults. The resultant landslides from this earthquake brought to the fore the effect of vertical earthquake acceleration on landslide occurrence. The pseudostatic analysis and the dynamic response on landslide stability due to the Wenchuan earthquake are studied with the Chengxi (West Town) catastrophic landslide used as a case study. The results show that the epicenter distance is an important factor which affects the vertical acceleration and thus the stability of landslide. Also, the vertical acceleration was found to have a significant impact on the FOS of landslide if the earthquake magnitude is quite large. Within the seismic fault, the amplitude effect of vertical acceleration is very dominant with the FOS of landslide, for vertical acceleration ranging from positive to negative, having a variation of 25 %. The variation of FOS of landslide for vertical acceleration ranging from positive to negative are 15 and 5 % for landslides near seismic fault and outside seismic fault, respectively. For landslide with a slope angle <45°, the FOS of landslide with both horizontal and vertical accelerations is significantly greater than the one without vertical acceleration. Further, the results computed from both the pseudostatic method and dynamic analysis reveal that the FOS during the earthquake varied significantly whether vertical acceleration is considered or not. The results from this study explain why lots of throwing-pattern catastrophic landslides occurred within 10 km of the seismic fault in the Wenchuan earthquake.     

Ten years of landslide development after the Wenchuan earthquake: a case study from Miansi town,China

Natural Hazards - The earthquake outbreak on 12 May 2008, in Wenchuan County caused long-term instability and frequent geological hazards on the mountain slopes in the earthquake area. Considering...     

Analysis of time-scaling behaviour in the sequence of aftershocks of the Wenchuan earthquake,China

Based on the aftershock sequence of the Great Wenchuan earthquake that occurred on 12 May, 2008, the long-term memory and multifractal scaling are analyzed by using MF-DFA method. And we consider aftershocks as a SOC phenomenon. Main findings are as follows: (1) h_q values of the aftershock sequence indicates high persistence or long-term memory. (2) The generalized fractal dimensions D(q) presents obvious trend variation, which reveal crisis and critical characteristics of seismogenic dynamical system. (3) The right-skewed spectrum f(α) indicates that the aftershocks are predominated by low magnitude, which gives a characterization of distribution in multiple scales in seismic activity. Its structural morphology is closely related with the dynamical complexity. (4) Aftershock sequence exhibits self-organized criticality because it follows the classical Gutenberg-Richter and Omori Law.     

Distribution characteristics of Geo-hazards in Ganxi Valley after the Wenchuan earthquake

A devastating earthquake of Ms 8.0 struck the Wenchuan area on May 12, 2008. The quake triggered numerous landslides and avalanches in Ganxi Valley. Aerial photo interpretation indicates that the landslides and avalanches, presently in a stable state, are concentrated in 91 subregions of the valley, occupying 10.42 km², about 29% of the valley area. Some laws have been found on the gradient, aspect, elevation, distance of rupture, and formation lithology of geo-hazards in Ganxi Valley: (1) They are mainly situated on slopes between 30° and 50° and increase in number with increasing slope; (2) Failures are mainly in a southerly direction; and most occurred between 1,000 and 1,600 m, especially between 1,000 and 1,400 m; (3) Most are within 2,000 m of the Beichuan fault or within 1,000 m of other major faults; (4) most failures occurred from the T₁f + t formation in the study area. The geo-hazards status quo of Ganxi Valley provides foundation for the scheme of hazard reducing in the future.     

闽江流域灾害性洪水形成机理分析

分析了形成闽江流域灾害性洪水的气侯条件，地理环境和暴雨条件以及社会影响因素，归纳了灾害性洪水的主要特征，提出了防治灾害性不的建议。     

Financing rapid community reconstruction after catastrophic disaster: lessons from the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China

Catastrophic disasters can change the course of urban development and challenge the long-run sustainability of cities and regions. How to rapidly reconstruct communities impaired by catastrophic disaster is a world-wide challenge. The reconstruction after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China was an unusual case of very rapid reconstruction after a catastrophic disaster. Over US$147 billion was invested to rebuild the damaged areas within 3 years. The reconstruction was not simply building back what was destroyed, but was used as an opportunity to advance national goals for urbanization, rural transformation, and poverty reduction. In this article, we review how the reconstruction was planned, budgeted, and financed in the sociopolitical context of 2008 China. Particularly, we discuss two innovative programs, namely pair assistance and land-based financing. Despite the unique circumstances of China, lessons can be learned to speed up post-disaster reconstruction and urban development in other countries. Conversely, this case illustrates that a narrow focus on physical reconstruction may overlook broader economic and social issues.

     

都江堰—汶川公路边坡地震破坏模式研究

汶川特大地震发生后,都江堰至汶川公路两侧地质灾害尤为发育,先后多次完全中断震中生命线的交通,严重影响了公路的安全运行和灾后重建的顺利进行。通过汶川地震前后都江堰-汶川公路边坡现场调查资料对比分析,研究了该地段边坡的主要地质灾害类型及其破坏模式、易发性分区和防治建议。研究表明破坏类型主要为碎屑流式、碎裂滑移崩塌,剪断-溃滑型、拉裂-溃滑型、顺层溃滑型滑坡和沟谷型泥石流。都汶公路两侧的边坡灾害以崩塌为主,滑坡、泥石流次之。地震使区内泥石流暴发的频率和规模增大,特大型泥石流主要发生在映秀-北川断裂带的地震烈度较高区域。防治此类地质灾害,应以治理为主,预防和避让相结合。     

岷江上游汶川县佛堂坝沟泥石流特征及危险性分区

佛堂坝沟为岷江上游左岸一级支流，100a来多次发生过严重的泥石流灾害。该沟发育干青藏高原边缘的高山峡谷区，流域相对高差达2470．7m，又处于龙门山地震断裂带内，沟内松散固体物质丰富，激发泥石流的高强度局部暴雨时有发生，泥石流的形成条件充分；通过野外调查和取样试验分析确定，泥石流具有粘度低、固体物质颗粒粗大、重度高，活动频率低、规模大的特征。根据泥石流的特征进行了泥石流分类，对该沟下游和沟口地带按泥石流危险性大小，分出泥石流一级危险区、二级危险区和安全区三级共3个区，并提出减灾防灾措施。