Predictability of winter rainfall in South China as demonstrated by the coupled models of ENSEMBLES

Winter rainfall over South China shows strong interannual variability,which accounts for about half of the total winter rainfall over South China.This study investigated the predictability of winter （December-January-February; DJF） rainfall over South China using the retrospective forecasts of five state-of-the-art coupled models included in the ENSEMBLES project for the period 1961-2006.It was found that the ENSEMBLES models predicted the interannual variation of rainfall over South China well,with the correlation coefficient between the observed/station-averaged rainfall and predicted/areaaveraged rainfall being 0.46.In particular,above-normal South China rainfall was better predicted,and the correlation coefficient between the predicted and observed anomalies was 0.64 for these wetter winters.In addition,the models captured well the main features of SST and atmospheric circulation anomalies related to South China rainfall variation in the observation.It was further found that South China rainfall,when predicted according to predicted DJF Nifio3.4 index and the ENSO-South China rainfall relationship,shows a prediction skill almost as high as that directly predicted,indicating that ENSO is the source for the predictability of South China rainfall.     

Interference of the East Asian Winter Monsoon in the Impact of ENSO on the East Asian Summer Monsoon in Decaying Phases简

The variability of the East Asian winter monsoon （EAWM） can be divided into an ENSO-related part （EAWMEN） and an ENSO-unrelated part （EAWMres）.The influence of EAWMres on the ENSO-East Asian summer monsoon （EASM） relationship in the decaying stages of ENSO is investigated in the present study.To achieve this,ENSO is divided into four groups based on the EAWMres：（1） weak EAWMres-E1Ni（n）o （WEAWMres-EN）; （2） strong EAWMres-E1Ni（n）o （SEAWMresEN）; （3） weak EAWMres-La Ni（n）a （WEAWMres-LN）; （4） strong EAWMres-La Ni（n）a （SEAWMres-LN）.Composite results demonstrate that the EAWMres may enhance the atmospheric responses over East Asia to ENSO for WEAWMres-EN and SEAWMres-LN.The corresponding low-level anticyclonic （cyclonic） anomalies over the western North Pacific （WNP） associated with El Ni（n）o （La Ni（n）a） tend to be strong.Importantly,this feature may persist into the following summer,causing abundant rainfall in northern China for WEAWMres-EN cases and in southwestern China for SEAWMres-LN cases.In contrast,for the SEAWMres-EN and WEAWMres-LN groups,the EAWMres tends to weaken the atmospheric circulation anomalies associated with E1 Ni（n）o or La Ni（n）a.In these cases,the anomalous WNP anticyclone or cyclone tend to be reduced and confined to lower latitudes,which results in deficient summer rainfall in northern China for SEAWMres-EN and in southwestern China for WEAWMres-LN.Further study suggests that anomalous EAWMres may have an effect on the extra-tropical sea surface temperature anomaly,which persists into the ensuing summer and may interfere with the influences of ENSO.     

Predictability of the East Asian winter monsoon interannual variability as indicated by the DEMETER CGCMS

The interannual variability of East Asian winter monsoon(EAWM) circulation from the Development of a European Multi-Model Ensemble(MME) System for Seasonal to Inter-Annual Prediction(DEMETER) hindcasts was evaluated against observation reanalysis data.We evaluated the DEMETER coupled general circulation models(CGCMs)’ retrospective prediction of the typical EAWM and its associated atmospheric circulation.Results show that the EAWM can be reasonably predicted with statistically significant accuracy,yet the major bias of the hindcast models is the underestimation of the related anomalies.The temporal correlation coefficient(TCC) of the MME-produced EAWM index,defined as the first EOF mode of 850hPa air temperature within the EAWM domain(20-60 N,90-150 E),was 0.595.This coefficient was higher than those of the corresponding individual models(range:0.39-0.51) for the period 1969-2001;this result indicates the advantage of the super-ensemble approach.This study also showed that the ensemble models can reasonably reproduce the major modes and their interannual variabilities for sea level pressure,geopotential height,surface air temperature,and wind fields in Eurasia.Therefore,the prediction of EAWM interannual variability is feasible using multimodel ensemble systems and that they may also reveal the associated mechanisms of the EAWM interannual variability.     

东亚冬季风指数的对比分析及其与中国冬季气候的关系

利用1951—2022年ERA5再分析大气环流资料和国家气候中心全国站点气温和降水资料,将33个常用的东亚冬季风（EAWM）指数划分为海陆差异类、高压特征类、大槽特征类、低层风场类、中高层风场类和综合类6类,按类别对比分析了它们的线性变化趋势和年际、年代际变化特征,并就各指数对中国冬季气温、降水时空变化的表征能力以及与厄尔尼诺-南方涛动（ENSO）、北极涛动（AO）等气候系统主要内部变率的关系进行了评估分析。结果显示：（1）在趋势变化方面,中国冬季气候暖湿化特征明显,但仅大槽特征类和综合类指数反映出季风的减弱趋势,其余类型指数则多呈现微弱的增强趋势,表明EAWM各子成员对当前全球变暖的响应存在差异;（2）在年际、年代际变化方面,EAWM指数主要表现为准4 a、准8 a和准16 a的周期振荡,基本都能刻画出20世纪80年代中后期EAWM的年代际减弱,对于21世纪第1个10年中期EAWM的年代际增强,考虑了南北气压差的海陆差异类指数以及高压特征类、大槽特征类和中高层风场类指数能较好表征;（3）在反映中国冬季气温变率的能力方面,除低层风场类指数外,各类指数表现良好,尤其是高压特征类指数的表征能力最佳,而在降水变率方面,高压特征类指数的代表性较差,低层风场类指数的指示意义最好;（4）在与气候系统主要内部变率的关系方面,大多数指数能较好反映ENSO与EAWM之间的关系,其中低层风场类指数的表征能力最好。而在反映AO与EAWM的关系上,则是高压特征类和大槽特征类指数的表现更佳。总体而言,除趋势变化存在较大差异外,各类EAWM指数能够一致地反映中国冬季气候变化的主要特征,但不同类别指数所表征的侧重点存在差异。因此,在分析EAWM相关科学问题时应根据研究的目的选择合适的指数。

     

东亚冬夏季风关系在1970s末的年代际转变

利用NCEP/NCAR和Hadley中心的大气与海洋再分析资料,选取具有代表性的东亚冬、夏季风指数,采用滑动相关和线性回归等方法,主要讨论了受ENSO影响的东亚冬季风分量和后期夏季风之间关系的年代际变化,并分析了二者关系发生变化的原因。结果表明:在1965—1979年,受ENSO影响的冬季风与后期夏季风强度的对应关系并不明显。在1980—2004年,受ENSO影响的冬季风强,对应后期的夏季风偏弱,弱冬季风对应的后期夏季风偏强。当受ENSO影响的冬季风较强时,冬季在对流层低层西北太平洋出现了异常气旋并可以维持到次年夏季,低纬地区位势高度偏低,削弱了西太平洋副热带高压,异常气旋西部的偏北气流阻碍了西南风的北进,导致夏季风偏弱。海表温度异常在1980年前后春、夏季不同的分布型可以解释环流在不同时段内的差异。     

阿留申低压与东亚冬季风关系的年代际变化

东亚冬季风系统是北半球冬季最活跃的环流系统,通过与西伯利亚高压、阿留申低压、东亚大槽和东亚西风急流等系统之间的相互作用,对东亚地区的气候产生重要影响。本文主要关注阿留申低压与东亚冬季风关系的年代际变化特征,利用经验正交函数分析方法,提取阿留申低压的强度变化、南北移动、西北-东南传播型和东西移动模态,并研究这4种模态与冬季风的北部型、南部型模态关系。结果表明阿留申低压的强度变化与2种东亚冬季风型的关系都不显著。阿留申低压的南北移动与南部型冬季风的相关性较强且具有年代际变化特征。1995年后南北涛动中心受ENSO(El Niño-Southern Oscillation)影响向东移动,阿留申低压和西伯利亚高压的配置不利于中国东南部气压梯度的形成,导致阿留申低压的南北移动与南部型冬季风的相关性降低。另外,1975年后北大西洋涛动在中西伯利亚地区激发正位势高度异常,扩大传播型模态影响范围,给中高纬地区带来东北风异常,有利于北部型冬季风的形成,此时传播型模态与北部型冬季风显著相关。     

一个适用于描述中国大陆冬季气温变化的东亚冬季风指数

利用1951年1月-2007年2月的NCEP V1格点资料和中国台站观测资料,定义了一个冬季风环流指数(IEAWM),并分析其与中国冬季气温和东亚大气环流变化的联系.结果表明该指数能够很好地反映东亚冬季风系统各成员的变化,兼顾北方和南方的环流状况和东西部热力差异的影响,改进了原有冬季风指数大多针对单一的冬季风环流成员及对中国冬季气温变化反映能力的不足,能够很好地反映中国冬季平均气温的异常变化.分析表明,当该指数为正值时东亚冬季风偏强,对应着地面西伯利亚高压和高空东亚大槽均偏强,东亚地区对流层中层的高-低纬度之间的纬向风经向切变加强,有利于中高纬度冷空气向南侵入,导致中国大陆地区气温偏低,反之亦然.IEAWM的年代际变化表明东亚冬季风在1985年之前偏强,1985年之后明显偏弱,这与1985年之后中国冬季变暖是一致的.     

东亚夏季风与澳洲冬季风强弱互补变化联系及其异常环流特征

利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、Hadley中心海温资料及CMAP降水资料等,通过亚澳季风联合指数挑选异常年份,对东亚夏季风和澳洲冬季风强度反相变化特征进行研究。结果表明,当东亚夏季风偏强、澳洲冬季风偏弱时,南北半球中低纬地区都出现了复杂的异常环流系统。在热带地区对流层低层,西北太平洋为异常反气旋式环流系统所控制,与南太平洋赤道辐合带的异常反气旋环流在赤道地区发生耦合,形成赤道异常东风,而在南北印度洋上则存在两个异常气旋式环流系统。在这两对异常环流之间的海洋性大陆地区,出现赤道以南为反气旋环流而赤道以北为气旋式环流。在东亚季风区,东南沿海的东侧海洋上存在反气旋异常,中国东南地区受异常反气旋西南侧的东南风影响。此外,澳洲北部受异常西风影响。这就形成了东亚夏季风偏强、澳洲冬季风偏弱的情形,从而东亚夏季风和澳洲冬季风活动出现了强弱互补的变化特征。当东亚夏季风偏弱、澳洲冬季风偏强时,南北半球的环流特征则出现与上述相反的环流特征。总体而言,当东亚夏季风偏强、澳洲冬季风偏弱时,东亚—澳洲季风区在南北半球呈现出不同的气候异常分布特征,即北半球降水北少南多、气温北高南低,南半球降水西多东少、气温西高东低。     

东亚夏季风和ENSO关系的不稳定性

通过本项研究，发现了东亚夏季风和ENSO的相互关系在长期变化中是不稳定的。不稳定指的是在一段时期两者关系比较紧密而在另一段时期两者关系比较微弱。文章揭示：在东亚季风和ENSO关系紧密时期（HCP）和关系微弱时期（LCP）夏季大气环流的年际变率有显著差别。在关系紧密时期，南热带东太平洋区的信风、热带东太平洋区的低层大气温度、两个半球的副热带高压系统等的年际变率均显著高于关系微弱时期。并且，HCP和LCP时期中国夏季降水和ENSO的关系也有明显差异。     

东亚季风近几十年来的主要变化特征

本文简要综述了关于东亚夏季风和冬季风近几十年来的主要变化特征的若干研究结果,特别是关于其年代际变化方面.夏季风及夏季气候的主要变化特征有:1970年代末之后东亚夏季风的年代际时间尺度的减弱以及相应的我国夏季降水江淮流域增多而华北减少、1992年之后我国华南夏季降水增多、1999年之后我国长江中下游夏季降水减少而淮河流域夏季降水增多、东亚夏季风和ENSO之间的年际变化相关性存在不稳定性.而关于东亚冬季风与冬季气候的主要变化特征有:1980年代中期之后东亚冬季风及其年际变率减弱、1970年代中期之后冬季风和ENSO的年际变化相关性较弱、近年来的北极秋季海冰减少对北半球冬季积雪增多有显著贡献、东北冬季积雪在1980年代中期以后增多.与上述变化有关的极端气候和物候都发生了多方面的变化.     

ENSO冷暖位相影响东亚冬季风与东亚夏季风联系的非对称性

东亚冬季风（East Asian Winter Monsoon,简称EAWM）和东亚夏季风（East Asian Summer Monsoon,简称EASM）作为东亚季风系统的两个组成部分,他们之间存在显著的转换关系。前人的研究表明EAWM与次年EASM的转换关系只有在ENSO事件发生时才显著,然而这些研究都是基于ENSO对大气环流的影响是对称的这一假设下进行的。本文的研究表明EAWM和次年EASM的转换关系在ENSO冷暖事件中存在着明显的不对称性。通过将EAWM分为与ENSO有关的部分（EAWM_EN）和与ENSO无关的部分（EAWM_RES）,我们发现在强EAWM_EN年（即La Ni?a年）,在西北太平洋会存在一个从冬季维持到次年夏季的气旋性环流异常（the anomalous western North Pacific Cyclone,WNPC）,从而造成EASM偏弱;而在弱EAWM_EN年（即El Ni?o年时）,在西北太平洋会存在一个从冬季维持到次年夏季的反气旋性环流异常（the anomalous western North Pacific anticyclone,WNPAC）,从而引起次年EASM偏强。比较而言,WNPAC的位置比WNPC的位置偏南,且强度更强,因而在El Ni?o年能够引起次年EASM更大幅度的增强。造成这一不对称联系的主要原因是热带太平洋和印度洋异常海温的演变差异。在强EAWM_EN年,热带太平洋的负海温异常衰减地较慢,使得在次年夏季仍然维持着显著的负异常海温;相反,在弱EAWM_EN年,热带太平洋的正海温异常衰减地较快,以至于在次年夏季的异常海温信号已经基本消失,但此时印度洋却有着显著的暖海温异常。海温演变的差异进一步造成了大气环流的差异,从而导致EAWM与次年EASM联系的不对称性。     

东亚冬季风指数的分类和比较

在回顾了2009年以前定义过的冬季风指数的基础上,按照定义要素的不同,进行了分类及序列延长计算,并将现有的冬季风指数分为海陆气压差类(4个)、高压特征类(3个)、风场特征类(9个)、环流特征类(4个)和综合类(2个)。研究了这些冬季风指数的年际及年代际变化趋势及其周期变化,分析了各指数之间的相关性,以及冬季风指数对中国冬季大陆气温变化的指示性。结果表明:东亚冬季风存在缓慢减弱的变化趋势,主要呈现出准6a,准11a和准17a的周期振荡特征。同类别指数之间的相关性要优于不同类别的。东亚冬季风指数与中国冬季大陆气温相关性普遍好的地区主要在河套及内蒙古中部、华南和东南沿海、四川盆地等。     

Evaluation of the twentieth century reanalysis dataset in describing East Asian winter monsoon variability

The Twentieth Century Reanalysis （20thCR） dataset released in 2010 covers the period 1871-2010 and is one of the longest reanalysis datasets available worldwide. Using ERA-40, ERA-Interim and NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data, as well as HadSLP2 data and meteorological temperature records over eastern China, the performances of 20thCR in reproducing the spatial patterns and temporal variability of the East Asian winter monsoon （EAWM） are examined. Results indicate that 20thCR data： （1） can accurately reproduce the most typical configuration patterns of all sub-factors differences in the main circulation fields over East Asia involved in the EAWM system, albeit with some in comparison to ERA-40 reanalysis data; （2） is reliable and stable in describing the temporal variability of EAWM since the 1930s; and （3） can describe the high-frequency variability of EAWM better than the low-frequency fluctuations, especially in the early period. In conclusion, caution should be taken when using 20thCR data to study interdecadal variabilities or long-term trends of the EAWM, especially prior to the 1930s.     

近百年东亚冬季风与ENSO循环的相互关系及其年代际异常

运用相关及滑动相关的计算技术，讨论了近百年东亚冬季风与ENSO循环的相互关系及其年代际异常。研究指出，东亚冬季风与赤道东太平洋海温的年际关系具有年代际的变化特征；季风与ENSO循环的关系受到季风的QBO以及季风-海洋的年代际背景场配置关系的共同作用；当季风与海洋的背景场处于同样状态时，强冬季风有利于第二年冬季赤道东太平洋的升温，产生El Ni?o事件；当两者的背景场处于反位相状态时，强冬季风对应于第二年冬季的La Ni?a位相。     

中国东部地区冬季AOD分布特征及与冬季风环流的可能联系

利用2000年3月—2017年3月Terra卫星反演的MODIS气溶胶光学厚度(Aerosol Optical Depth,AOD)资料、NCEP的fnl全球业务分析数据、CMAP降水资料、CERES SYN1deg Ed 4月平均资料以及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料等,依据中国东部冬季区域平均AOD距平具有显著的年际变化特征,将历年冬季AOD划分为5个不同的污染等级,并探讨了不同污染等级的局地成因及其与冬季风环流的联系。结果表明,中国东部冬季AOD区域平均值与气候要素场有很好的相关关系,即AOD异常偏高(低)时,入射到地面的太阳短波辐射通量减小(增加),地面气温降低(增加),地气系统冷却(加热),地面降水呈现华北与江淮内陆少、江淮东南多(华北与江淮西南部多、江淮地区东部少)的分布特征。中国东部AOD值异常偏高与风速异常偏小有关,且这种负相关关系在华北表现最明显:即AOD异常偏高(低)时,华北地面风速偏小(大),江淮地面风速偏大(小)。个例分析表明,纬向风速异常偏小、东风异常及阿留申低压偏弱是2013年AOD异常偏高的主要原因。     

A numerical study on the winter monsoon and cold surge over East Asia

By using the improved regional climate model （RegCM_NCC）, a numerical study has been undertaken for the East Asia region over a period of 5 years （1998-2002） in an effort to evaluate the model＇s ability to reproduce the winter monsoon conditions that were observed. The results showed that the model can successfully simulate the basic characteristics of the winter monsoon circulations, including the location and intensity of the cold-surface, high-pressure system, as well as the wind patterns and the intensity of the winter monsoon. The simulated occurrence frequency and regions of the cold surge were consistent with the observations. The simulated rainfall distribution over China was consistent with the observations collected in South China. The features of the simulated moisture transport were also in good agreement with the observations that were derived from the NCEP reanalysis data, indicating that moisture transport coming from the Bay of Bengal trough plays a crucial role in supplying moisture needed for precipitation in South China. In addition, the moisture transport coming from the near-equatorial west-Pacific was also important. These two branches of moisture transport converged in South China, as a prerequisite for occurrence of the precipitation that was observed there. Heat budgets have shown that the development of a heat sink over the East Asian continent was remarkable and its thermal contrast relative to the neighboring seas was the important forcing factor for the winter monsoon activity. The simulation also indicated that the significant differences in circulation patterns and rainfalls during the winters of 1997/98 and 1998/99 were affected by cold and warm ENSO events, respectively. The above analysis demonstrated the model＇s ability to simulate the East Asian winter monsoon.     

Recent advances in studies of the interaction between the East Asian winter and summer monsoons and ENSO cycle

Recent advances in studies on the interaction between the East Asian monsoon and the ENSO cycle are reviewed in this paper. Through the recent studies, not only have the responding features and processes of the East Asian winter and summer monsoon circulation anomalies and summer rainfall anomalies in East Asia to the ENSO cycle during its different stages been understood further, but also have the thermal and dynamic effects of the tropical western Pacific on the ENSO cycle been deeply analyzed from the observational facts and dynamic theories. The results of observational and theoretical studies showed that the dynamical effect of the atmospheric circulation and zonal wind anomalies in the lower troposphere over the tropical western Pacific on the ENSO cycle may be through the excitation of the equatorial oceanic Kelvin wave and Rossby waves in the equatorial Pacific. These studies demonstrated further that the ENSO cycle originates from the tropical western Pacific. Moreover, these recent studies also showed that the atmospheric circulation and zonal wind anomalies over the tropical western Pacific not only result from the air-sea interaction over the tropical western Pacific, but are also greatly influenced by the East Asian winter and summer monsoons. Additionally, the scientific problems in the interaction between the Asian monsoon and the ENSO cycle which should be studied further in the near future are also pointed out in this paper.     

关于东亚副热带季风若干问题的讨论

利用NCEP/NCAR再分析格点资料、TRMM卫星降水资料、中国东部站点降水资料和CMAP降水资料,重点讨论了东亚副热带季风雨季的起始时间、建立特征及其和南海夏季风的关系,同时也讨论了东亚副热带季风的可能机制。结果表明：（1）东亚副热带季风雨季于3月底—4月初（第16—18候）在江南南部和华南北部首先开始,伴随着降水的开始是偏南风的增强和对流性降水的显著增加,华南前汛期开始。（2）东亚副热带季风雨季的建立早于热带季风雨季,在热带季风建立后两者的雨带、强西南风带、强垂直运动带、强低空水汽辐合带均是分离的,南海热带季风在其建立后,与东亚副热带季风发生相互作用,促使副热带季风雨带季节性北进,两者共同影响中国的旱涝。（3）3月中下旬,东亚大陆（包括青藏高原）上空大气由冷源转为热源,东亚大陆与西太平洋之间的纬向热力差异及其相应的温度和气压对比均发生反转。东亚大陆（包括青藏高原）的动力和热力作用究竟是否是东亚副热带季风雨带提前建立的机制值得进一步研究。文章最后讨论了有关东亚副热带季风的共识与分歧。     

The interannual variability of East Asian Winter Monsoon and its relation to the summer monsoon

1.IntroductionOvertheEastAsiaregion,themostprominentsurfacefeatureofthewintermonsoonisstrongnortheasterliesalongtheeastflankoftheSiberianhighandthecoastofEastAsia.At500hPathereisabroadtroughcenteredaboutatthelongitudesofJapan.Thedominantfea-tureat2O0hPaistheEastAsianjetwithitsmaximumlocatedatjustsoutheastofJapan.Thisktisassociatedwithintensebaroclinicity,largeverticalwindshearandstrongadvectionofcoldair(StaffmembersofAcademiaSinica,l957,LauandChang,1987;BoyleandChen,1987;Chenetal.,1991…     

中国中东部冬季霾日的形成与东亚冬季风和大气湿度的关系

利用1961-2013年中国地面台站长期观测资料和同期NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,以华北、江淮和华南为研究区,分析了中国中东部冬季霾日的形成与东亚冬季风以及大气湿度的关系。结果表明:(1)冬季霾日与东亚冬季风强度成显著的负相关。首先,东亚冬季风强度的减弱使得地面风速减小,进而导致冬季霾日增多。其中,华北7-8 m/s最大风速日数和江淮6-8 m/s最大风速日数的减少,及华南≤2 m/s最大风速日数的增多对各区冬季霾日的增多作用较大。其次,东亚冬季风减弱引起冬季气温的持续升高,易导致冬季霾日的增多,这在华北地区较之在江淮和华南更为明显。(2)由于气候变暖,冬季气温升高,使得近地面相对湿度减小。在江淮和华南地区,冬季霾日的增多与近地面相对湿度的减小显著相关,而在华北地区这种相关较弱。(3)冬季气温升高也有利于大气层结稳定度的增强,3个区域冬季霾日的增多均与大气层结稳定度的增强显著相关,特别是与对流层中低层(850-500 hPa)大气饱和度的降低显著相关。(4)冬季霾日数变化与区域水汽输送关系密切。其中,华北地区的冬季霾日数与水汽总收入成显著正相关,江淮地区与纬向水汽收入成显著正相关,与经向水汽收入成显著负相关,华南地区与经向水汽收入成显著负相关。