Solar flare hard X-ray observations

Recent hard X-ray observations of solar flares are reviewed with emphasis on results obtained with instruments on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite. Flares with three different sets of characteristics, designated as Type A, Type B, and Type C, are discussed and hard X-ray temporal, spatial, spectral, and polarization measurements are reviewed in this framework. Coincident observations are reviewed at other wavelengths including the UV, microwaves, and soft X-rays, with discussions of their interpretations. In conclusion, a brief outline is presented of the potential of future hard X-ray observations with sub-second time resolution, arcsecond spatial resolution, and keV energy resolution, and polarization measurements at the few percent level up to 100 keV.     

Spatial and temporal evolution of soft and hard X-ray emission in a solar flare

We study the spatial and temporal characteristics of the 3.5 to 30.0 keV emission in a solar flare on April 10, 1980. The data were obtained by the Hard X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the Solar Maximum Mission Satellite. It is complemented in our analysis with data from other instruments on the same spacecraft, in particular that of the Hard X-ray Burst Spectrometer.Key results of our investigation are: (a) Continuous energy release is needed to substain the increase of the emission through the rising phase of the flare, before and after the impulsive phase in hard X-rays. The energy release is characterized by the production of hot (5 × 10⁷ T 1.5 × 10⁸ K) thermal regions within the flare loop structures. (b) The observational parameters characterizing the impulsive burst show that it is most likely associated with non-thermal processes (particle acceleration). (c) The continuous energy release is associated with strong chromospheric evaporation, as evidenced in the spectral line behavior determined from the Bent Crystal Spectrometer data. Both processes seem to stop just before flare maximum, and the subsequent evolution is most likely governed by the radiative cooling of the flare plasma.     

Vertical structure of hard X-ray flare

This paper presents studies of the vertical structure of hard X-ray flares for two contrasting examples. The 1981 May 13 flare contained a coronal hard X-ray source which was located above 50000 km above the photosphere. On the other hand, the 1981 July 20 flare had a chromospheric double source structure in the initial phase. Electrons in this case were able to stream freely from the corona to the chromosphere.     

On the reconciliation of simultaneous microwave imaging and hard X-ray observations of a solar flare

We have compared microwave imaging data for a small flare with simultaneous hard X-ray spectral observations. The X-ray data suggest that the power-law index of the energy distribution of the radiating electrons is 5.3 (thick-target) which differs significantly from the estimate ( = 1.4) from a homogeneous optically-thin gyrosynchrotron model which fits the radio observations well. In order to reconcile these results, we explore a number of options. We investigate a double power-law energy spectrum for the energetic electrons in the flare, as assumed by other authors: the power law is steep at low energies and much flatter at the higher energies which produce the bulk of the microwaves. The deduced break energy is about 230 keV if we tentatively ignore the X-ray emission from the radio-emitting electrons: however, the emission of soft photons by the flat tail strongly contributes to the observed hard X-ray range and would flatten the spectrum there. A thin-target model for the X-ray emission is also inconsistent with radio data. An inhomogeneous gyrosynchrotron model with a number of free parameters and containing an electron distribution given by the thick-target X-ray model could be made to fit the radio data.     

Diagnostics of solar flare hard X-ray sources

The dynamics of hard X-ray producing electron beams in solar flares can be strongly affected by the occurrence of a reverse current. The parameter diagram for a beam can be divided into three regimes, one of which is the usual thick target case, the two others being due to two different possible consequences of the reverse current. The use of this parameter diagram as a possible diagnostic tool for solar flare hard X-ray sources is discussed, together with the necessary observations and their interpretation.The forthcoming Solar Maximum Mission, complemented with concurrent ground-based efforts provide the next possibility to obtain these observations, given a good coordination of observing programs. We stress the importance of microwave (GHz) ratio observations with good temporal (few sec) and spatial resolution (1) in one dimension, and of reliable spectroscopic methods to determine the density in solar flare hard X-ray sources.     

The point spread function of the soft X-ray telescope aboard Yohkoh

The point spread function of the SXT telescope aboardYohkoh has been measured in flight configuration in three different X-ray lines at White Sands Missile Range. We have fitted these data with an elliptical generalization of the Moffat function. Our fitting method consists of ² minimizationin Fourier space, especially designed for matching of sharply peaked functions. We find excellent fits with a reduced ² of order unity or less for single exposure point spread functions over most of the CCD. Near the edges of the CCD the fits are less accurate due to vignetting. From fitting results with summation of multiple exposures we find a systematic error in the fitting function of the order of 3% near the peak of the point spread function, which is close to the photon noise for typical SXT images in orbit. We find that the full width to half maximum and fitting parameters vary significantly with CCD location. However, we also find that point spread functions measured at the same location are consistent to one another within the limit determined by photon noise. A best analytical fit to the PSF as function of position on the CCD is derived for use in SXT image enhancement routines. As an aside result we have found that SXT can determine the location of point sources to about a quarter of a 2.54 arc sec pixel.This paper is dedicated to the memory of our friend and colleague Kermit Smith, who died in June 1993, after a valient fight with leukemia.     

Location of type I radio continuum and bursts on Yohkoh soft X-ray maps

A solar type I noise storm was observed on 30 July, 1992 with the radio spectrometer Phoenix of ETH Zürich, the Very Large Array (VLA) and the soft X-ray (SXR) telescope on board theYohkoh satellite. The spectrogram was used to identify the type I noise storm. In the VLA images at 333 MHz a fully left circular polarized (100% LCP) continuum source and several highly polarized (70% to 100% LCP) burst sources have been located. The continuum and the bursts are spatially separated by about 100 and apparently lie on different loops as outlined by the SXR. Continuum and bursts are separated in the perpendicular direction to the magnetic field configuration. Between the periods of strong burst activities, burst-like emissions are also superimposed on the continuum source. There is no obvious correlation between the flux density of the continuum and the bursts. The burst sources have no systematic motion, whereas the the continuum source shows a small drift of 0.2 min^–1 along the X-ray loop in the long-time evolution. The VLA maps at higher frequency (1446 MHz) show no source corresponding to the type I event. The soft X-ray emission measure and temperature were calculated. The type I continuum source is located (in projection) in a region with enhanced SXR emission, a loop having a mean density of n _e = (1.5 ± 0.4) × 10⁹ cm^–3 and a temperature ofT = (2.1 ± 0.1) × 10⁶ K. The centroid positions of the left and right circularly polarized components of the burst sources are separated by 15–50 and seem to be on different loops. These observations contradict the predictions of existing type I theories.Presented at the CESRA-Workshop on Coronal Magnetic Energy Release at Caputh near Potsdam in May 1994.     

Non-thermal and non-equilibrium effects in soft X-ray flare spectra

Processes leading to the excitation of soft X-ray line spectra are discussed in relation to their thermal or non-thermal nature. Through analysis of calcium spectra from the XRP experiment on SMM, it is shown that the ionization balance during the gradual phase of flares is effectively in the steady-state. A search of suitable complex flares with multiple impulsive features has shown indications of soft X-ray line intensity anomalies, consistent with the presence of a non-thermal electron component.     

Yohkoh observations of the creation of high-temperature plasma in the flare of 16 December 1991

Yohkoh observations of an impulsive solar flare which occurred on 16 December, 1991 are presented. This flare was a GOES M2.7 class event with a simple morphology indicative of a single flaring loop. X-ray images were taken with the Hard X-ray Telescope (HXT) and soft X-ray spectra were obtained with the Bragg Crystal Spectrometer (BCS) on board the satellite. The spectrometer observations were made at high sensivity from the earliest stages of the flare, are continued throughout the rise and decay phases, and indicate extremely strong blueshifts, which account for the majority of emission in Caxix during the initial phase of the flare. The data are compared with observations from other space and ground-based instruments. A balance calculation is performed which indicates that the energy contained in non-thermal electrons is sufficient to explain the high temperature plasma which fills the loop. The cooling of this plasma by thermal conduction is independently verified in a manner which indicates that the loop filling factor is close to 100%. The production of superhot plasma in impulsive events is shown to differ in detail from the morphology and mechanisms appropriate for more gradual events.     

Solar soft X-ray flare spectra from OSO-4

Solar flare spectral data, covering the wavelength range 0.7–8.5 Å, are derived from the NRL Bragg crystal spectrometers aboard OSO-4. A detailed analysis of the soft X-ray spectra for the 3b flare of 16 November 1967 (2140 UT) is presented, and it is found that electron temperatures derived from continua and emission lines are compatible with a two or more component plasma, differing in temperature by 6–10 × 10⁶K.     

Combined study between the chromospheric flare models and hard X-ray observation

By comparison between SMM HXRBS observation and ground observation of H and Caii K lines for the 2B flare on February 3, 1983, we found that there was a temporal correlation between H intensity and hard X-ray flux at the early stage of the impulsive phase while different peaks in the hard X-ray flux curve represented bursts at different locations. When we combined SMM HXRBS observation with chromospheric flare models, we further found that the temporal coincidence between H intensity and hard X-ray flux could be explained quantitatively by the fact that the H flare was indeed due to the heating by non-thermal electron beams responsible for the emission of hard X-rays. Together with the discussion on coronal density based on chromospheric flare models, it was also shown that the source of electrons seemed to be situated around the top of the flare loop and the column density at the top of the chromosphere in semi-empirical flare models could not be taken as the total material above the top of the chromosphere.     

X-ray observations of limb flare loops and post-flare coronal arch

We present observations of another post-flare arch following an eruptive flare, detected in X-ray lines above the western solar limb on 2 May 1985.     

Simultaneous measurements of EUV and soft X-ray solar flare emission

Broadband sensors aboard the Naval Research Laboratory's SOLRAD 11 satellites measured solar emission in the 0.5 to 3 Å, 1 to 8 Å, 8 to 20 Å, 100 to 500 Å, 500 to 800 Å, and 700 to 1030 Å bands between March 1976 and October 1979. Measurements of EUV and soft X-ray emission from a large number of solar flares were obtained. Although solar flare measurements in the soft X-ray bands are continuously made and used as a standard of a flare's geophysical significance, direct measurements of flare EUV emission are quite rare. We present measurements of the X-ray and EUV emission from several flares with special emphasis on the relative EUV response associated with flares in different categories determined by 1 to 8 Å soft X-ray flux. An example of a flare exhibiting an impulsive (nonthermal) phase is included.Proceedings of the 14th ESLAB Symposium on Physics of Solar Variations, 16–19 Semptember 1980, Scheveningen, The Netherlands.     

Recombination edges observed in solar soft X-ray flare spectra

Edges in the solar soft X-ray flare continuum have been observed with the NRL Bragg crystal spectrometer aboard OSO-4. The edges near 2.06 Å, 2.8 Å, and 4.46 Å are interpreted to be due to an innershell dielectronic recombination process, details of which are presented. Two other edges, 3.59 Å and 3.31 Å, are interpreted to be due to recombination of the bare sulfur ion and innershell transitions of calcium.     

Observations of fine time structure in solar flare hard X-ray bursts

Hard X-ray (?100 keV) time histories of solar flares which occurred on 1978 December 4 and 1979 February 18 are presented. The first flare was observed by 3 identical instruments from near-earth orbit (Prognoz 7) and interplanetary space (Venera 11 and 12). Fine time structure is present down to the 55 ms level for the e-folding rise and fall times. These data may be used to localize the emission region by the method of arrival time analysis.     

X-ray observations of a major eruptive flare behind the limb

We analyze X-ray images and spectra of a coronal structure which extended to altitudes over 130 000 km above an eruptive flare located 20° behind the western solar limb. The images were obtained by the Flat Crystal Spectrometer (FCS) and the spectra were obtained by the Bent Crystal Spectrometer (BCS) aboard the SMM spacecraft. Images in Oviii and Mgxi lines cover the period from before the flare onset (which occurred at 22:31 UT on 16 February, 1986) through 17 UT on 17 February and were used for determination of temperature and emission measure within the structure. BCS obtained Caxix spectra of the coronal event, benefiting from the occultation of the active region behind the solar limb.The BCS data show, and FCS data confirm, that the temperature, after an initial rise and decline, stayed almost constant for many hours after 04:30 UT on 17 February. This may indicate that initially we observed the rise and decay of post-flare loops, but later the X-ray emission came predominantly from a post-flare giant arch that formed above them. This has been observed in many previous cases. However, a comparison with other events characterized by very high post-flare loops, such as those that occurred on 29 July, 1973 (Skylab data) and on 14 February, 1986 (from this same region), suggests that we may be observing the same system of slowly growing groups all the time. Therefore, we suggest a third possibility, i.e., that such anomalously high loop systems first behave like post-flare loops but gradually take over some characteristics of a post-flare giant arch. The Soft X-ray Telescope aboardYohkoh, with spatial resolution improved by nearly an order of magnitude, might be able to check up on the development of such large-scale coronal structures if proper observational modes are applied after the occurrence of major eruptive flares.Deceased 1 June, 1993.     

Heat flux saturation in hydrodynamic soft X-ray solar flare plasmas

The role of heat flux limitation in soft X-ray emitting solar flare plasmas is considered. Simple analytic arguments suggest that flux limitation is likely to be important during the explosive heating phase, even for relatively modest coronal energy fluxes (say 10⁹ erg cm^-2 s^-1). This conclusion is reinforced by a detailed flare loop simulation of the heating phase. Since flux saturation effectively bottles up the coronal heat flux, mass motions now assume a dominant role in transferring energy from the coronal flare source to the lower transition region. The mass-energy exchange between the corona and chromosphere produces dramatic changes in the thermal structure of the plasma which are reflected in the differential emission measure profile of the flaring loop.