近20年天山地区冰湖变化特征

主要基于Landsat TM/ETM+影像等数据,分析1990-2010 年来天山地区冰湖变化特征及其对冰川融水径流的影响。近20 年来,天山冰湖面积平均以0.689 km²a^-1 或0.8% a^-1的速度扩张,其中一半以上是由东天山(0.352 km² a^-1) 贡献的,其次为北天山,面积年均增率为0.165km² a^-1,西天山和中央天山的面积年均增率最小,分别为0.089 km² a^-1和0.083 km² a^-1。除在相对较低海拔(< 2900 m) 和高海拔(> 4100 m) 范围内冰湖面积出现减少的现象,其他各高度带的冰湖面积均在扩张,其中增率最快的在3500~3900 m之间,平均增速达1.6% a^-1。冰湖扩张是本区气候变暖和冰川普遍退缩共同作用的结果,以中小规模的冰湖(< 0.6 km²) 对冰川退缩响应最为敏感。冰湖扩张能在一定程度上延缓因气候变暖而导致的区域冰川水资源的亏损,每年大约有0.006 Gt 的冰川融水滞留在冰湖中,约占天山冰川年消融量的2‰,但也将加剧本区冰湖溃决洪水/泥石流灾害的频次和强度。     

西藏东南部米堆冰湖面积和水量变化及其对溃决灾害发生的影响

冰湖溃决灾害是青藏高原地区主要的灾害之一。详细了解冰湖的面积和水量变化及其原因, 有助于更准确地确定其溃决的可能性和产生破坏的程度和范围。米堆冰湖为一个典型的冰碛物阻塞冰湖, 1988 年7 月15 日曾发生溃决。本研究利用1980 年1:5 万地形图和DEM、1988 年TM影像、2001 年IKONOS影像以及2001、2007、2009、2010 年ALOS影像, 提取冰湖溃决前后的面积变化, 结合野外实地测得的冰湖水深, 获得冰湖不同时期的水量及其变化。同时, 利用自动水位计, 监测湖泊相对水深的变化及其原因。结果显示, 米堆溃决前面积达到64×10⁴ m², 水量为699×10⁴ m³, 溃决使得601.83×10⁴ m³的水量溃出, 水位下降了17.18 m, 但溃决口并未达到冰湖最低处, 溃决后仍有97.17×10⁴ m³的水量。近年来, 气温升高融水增加使得冰湖面积和水量不断增加, 按照目前的水量增加速率, 冰湖再次发生溃决的可能性较小, 而在由于其他原因使得冰湖发生堵塞或大量外来物质(冰川断裂、滑坡等)填充进冰湖时, 可能导致冰湖水位急剧上升, 再次发生溃决。     

Moraine-dammed glacial lake changes during the recent 40 years in the Poiqu River Basin, Himalayas

Glacier retreat is not only a symbol of temperature and precipitation change, but a dominating factor of glacial lake changes in alpine regions, which are of wide concern for high risk of potential outburst floods. Of all types of glacial lakes, moraine-dammed lakes may be the most dangerous to local residents in mountain regions. Thus, we monitored the dynamics of 12 moraine-dammed glacial lakes from 1974 to 2014 in the Poiqu River Basin of central west Himalayas, as well as their associated glaciers with a combination of remote sensing, topographic maps and digital elevation models (DEMs). Our results indicate that all monitored moraine-dammed glacial lakes have expanded by 7.46 km² in total while the glaciers retreated by a total of 15.29 km² correspondingly. Meteorological analysis indicates a warming and drying trend in the Nyalam region from 1974 to 2014, which accelerated glacier retreat and then augmented the supply of moraine-dammed glacial lakes from glacier melt. Lake volume and water depth changed from 1974 to 2014 which indicates that lakes Kangxico, Galongco, and Youmojanco have a high potential for outburst floods and in urgent need for continuous monitoring or artificial excavation to release water due to the quick increase in water depths and storage capacities. Lakes Jialongco and Cirenmaco, with outburst floods in 1981 and 2002, have a high potential risk for outburst floods because of rapid lake growth and steep slope gradients surrounding them.     

冰湖的界定与分类体系——面向冰湖编目和冰湖灾害研究

冰川湖泊（简称冰湖）不仅是高山区重要的水资源,而且是许多冰川灾害的孕育者和发源地,在冰冻圈科学、气候变化和山地灾害研究中具有重要地位。本文系统讨论了现有冰湖定义及存在的问题,从冰湖编目和冰湖灾害研究视角提出冰湖的定义,指出现有冰湖研究主要是基于“以现代冰川融水为主要补给源或在冰碛垄洼地内积水形成的天然水体”这一冰湖定义的。同时,从冰湖形成机理、地貌形态和空间分布位置将冰湖划分为冰川侵蚀湖（冰斗湖、冰川槽谷湖和其他冰川侵蚀湖）、冰碛阻塞湖（终碛阻塞湖、侧碛阻塞湖、冰碛垄热融湖）、冰川阻塞湖（冰川前进阻塞湖和其他冰川阻塞湖）、冰面湖、冰下（内）湖和其他冰川湖6大类及8个亚类,并给出各冰湖类型相应的遥感判识指标和定量指标,以期建立具有普适性和可操作性的冰湖分类体系。     

Zhangmu and Gyirong ports under the threat of glacial lake outburst flood

The Himalayas are prone to glacial lake outburst floods, which can pose a severe threat to downstream villages and infrastructure. The Zhangmu and Gyirong land treaty ports are located on the China-Nepal border in the central Himalayas. In recent years, the expansion of glacial lakes has increased the threat of these two port regions. This article describes the results of mapping the glacial lakes larger than 0.01 km² in the Zhangmu and Gyirong port regions and analyzes their change. It provides a comprehensive assessment of potentially dangerous glacial lakes and predicts the development of future glacial lakes. From 1988 to 2019, the glacial lakes in these port regions underwent "expansion", and moraine-dammed lakes show the most significant expansion trend. A total of eleven potentially dangerous glacial lakes are identified based on the assessment criteria and historical outburst events; most expanded by more than 150% from 1988 to 2019, with some by over 500%. The Cirenmaco, a moraine-dammed lake, is extremely prone to overtopping due to ice avalanches or the melting of dead ice in the dam. For other large lakes, such as the Jialongco, Gangxico and Galongco, ice avalanches may likely cause the lakes to burst besides self-destructive failure. The potential dangers of the Youmojianco glacial lakes, including lakes Nos. 9, 10 and 11, will increase in the future. In addition, the glacier-bed topography model predicts that 113 glacial lakes with a size larger than 0.01 km², a total area of 11.88 km² and a total volume of 6.37×10⁹ m³ will form in the study area by the end of the 21 century. Due to global warming, the glacial lakes in the Zhangmu and Gyirong port regions will continue to grow in the short term, and hence the risk of glacial lake outburst floods will increase.     

我国喜马拉雅山区冰湖扩张特征及其气候意义

分析冰湖扩张特征和扩张方式及其气候意义,有利于认识冰川-冰湖-气候三者的变化关系和冰湖溃决灾害危险性程度。基于大比例尺地形图、DEM、ASTER影像等数据,分析近30年来我国喜马拉雅山区不同海拔高度冰湖变化的特征及冰湖-母冰川的相对位置的变化关系,探讨其气候效应。结果显示：(1) 存在冰湖的面积增大是冰湖面积扩张的主要贡献者,占总面积净增量的67%,新增湖的面积占总面积净增量的33%;(2) 不同高度带冰湖面积多呈扩张态势,净增面积在5000~5300 m出现峰值,指示气候变化的垂直差异性;(3) 在2000s 母冰川-冰湖距离为0 的冰湖,数量占扩张冰湖总数的19%,而其冰湖面积增量却占了总面积增量的60%,为冰湖扩张的主体,反映出冰湖与母冰川关系越紧密,气候效应越强烈,冰湖面积增加越显著。     

Definition and classification system of glacial lake for inventory and hazards study

Glacial lakes are not only the important refresh water resources in alpine region, but also act as a trigger of many glacial hazards such as glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) and debris flow. Therefore, glacial lakes play an important role on the cryosphere, climate change and alpine hazards. In this paper, the issues of glacial lake were systematically discussed, then from the view of glacial lake inventory and glacial lake hazards study, the glacial lake was defined as natural water mainly supplied by modern glacial meltwater or formed in glacier moraine’s depression. Furthermore, a complete classification system of glacial lake was proposed based on its formation mechanism, topographic feature and geographical position. Glacial lakes were classified as 6 classes and 8 subclasses, i.e., glacial erosion lake (including cirque lake, glacial valley lake and other glacial erosion lake), moraine-dammed lake (including end moraine-dammed lake, lateral moraine-dammed lake and moraine thaw lake), ice-blocked lake (including advancing glacier-blocked lake and other glacier-blocked lake), supraglacial lake, subglacial lake and other glacial lake. Meanwhile, some corresponding features exhibiting on remote sensing image and quantitative indices for identifying different glacial lake types were proposed in order to build a universal and operational classification system of glacial lake.     

喜马拉雅地区叶如藏布流域冰川和冰湖变化遥感监测研究

叶如藏布流域冰川和冰湖众多,冰川融水是当地重要的淡水资源,是冰湖扩张的重要补给,冰湖溃决是当地潜在的自然灾害,因此分析该区域冰川和冰湖的现状与变化特征具有重要的现实意义。基于Landsat系列遥感影像,分析1990—2020年叶如藏布流域冰川和冰湖的分布与变化特征。结果表明：（1） 近30 a来叶如藏布流域冰川面积整体呈退缩趋势,由1990年167.80 km²退缩到2020年128.92 km²,共退缩38.88 km²,年均退缩率为0.77%·a^-1,且研究区冰川主要分布在海拔5800~6400 m之间,集中分布在5°~20°的坡度上。（2） 与冰川变化趋势相反,研究时段冰湖整体表现为扩张趋势,由1990年5.72 km²增加到2020年8.81 km²,30 a共增加3.09 km²,年均增长率为1.80%·a^-1。（3） 冰湖主要分布在海拔5000~5600 m范围内,坡度在0~10°分布面积较多,表碛覆盖型冰川与非表碛覆盖型冰川对冰湖有着不同程度的影响。（4） 1990—2017年叶如藏布流域温度与降水波动较大,温度整体呈上升趋势,降水量则波动下降,导致叶如藏布流域的冰川消融,冰湖扩张。通过上述研究以期为叶如藏布流域地区提供详细的冰川和冰湖面积分布与变化特征基础数据,为防灾减灾提供一定的支撑。     

基于3S技术方法的中国冰湖编目

通过研制一整套基于3S技术的冰湖编目规范与方法,以159景Landsat8 OLI遥感影像为基础,结合中国第二次冰川编目数据与Google Earth中的影像数据等,通过人工目视解译获取冰湖边界,首次完成了基于统一规范的中国冰湖编目数据库建设,查清了2015±1~2年中国冰湖的整体分布状态。结果显示,当前中国共有冰湖17300个,总面积1132.83±147.449 km²,其中冰川补给湖约占中国冰湖总面积的74.6%和总数量的66.5%。并且冰湖数量与面积分布的空间差异十分显著。流域上,外流区冰湖广泛发育,其中恒河—雅鲁藏布江流域是中国冰湖分布最多的流域,现有冰湖7898个,面积约622.42±75.55 km²,分别占中国冰湖总量的45.7%和54.9%;海拔上,中国冰湖分布于2167~6247 m的海拔范围内,各山脉的冰湖面积呈近似正态分布,总体在5000~5500 m处达到峰值,占总面积的36.7%（975.06±128.83 km²）;但各个山脉的分布差异显著,其中念青唐古拉山、喜马拉雅山的冰湖分布最为集中,分别占中国冰湖总面积的28.3%和26.4%。     

近50年气候变化背景下青藏高原冰川和湖泊变化(英文)

本文综述了近年来青藏高原冰川和湖泊变化研究取得的成果,并特别着重于冰川和湖泊变化的相互关系论述。在全球变暖背景下,近几十年青藏高原冰川以退缩为主,湖泊水量以增加为主。本文一方面对青藏高原冰川末端退缩、冰川面积和冰川储量变化方面的研究成果进行了综合分析,探讨了冰川变化的时空特征;另一方面从湖泊面积和水位与水量变化探讨了湖泊变化的时空规律。结果表明青藏高原冰川退缩的幅度总体上呈从青藏高原外缘向内陆呈减小的变化态势,受冰川融水补给比较大的湖泊近期面积扩张、水位上升明显。最后指出了青藏高原冰川、湖泊变化研究中存在的问题及今后的发展趋势。     

Water quality and light absorption attributes of glacial lakes in Mount Qomolangma region

As they are products of glacier movement, the water body composition and water quality attributes of glacial lakes have distinct characteristics compared with inland lakes. Although satellite remote sensing provides an effective approach to monitor water quality, lack of in-situ measurement data on the status and environment surrounding glacial lakes presents a major constraint in relating satellite data to water quality indicators. This study presents findings of a preliminary investigation into water quality attributes of 3 glacial lakes in the Mount Qomolangma region. Suspended particulate matter （SPM）, light absorption attributes of phytoplankton, nonalgal particles （NAP）, and colored dissolved organic matter （CDOM） were measured. The suspended substance concentration varies markedly from 0-320 mg/L. This is considered to reflect differing stages of lake development. l-he chlorophyll concentra- tion is much lower than that found for inland lakes, as landscapes that surround these high altitude lakes have almost no vegetation growth. The phytoplankton and CDOM concentration depend on long-term stability of lake slopes. Given the lack of exogenous and endogenous inputs in the Qomolangma region, CDOM in glacial lakes is significantly lower than in inland lakes. These preliminary findings could support efforts to appraise estimates of water quality parameters using remotely sensed images.     

Snow disaster characteristics in Palongzangbu River Basin and mitigation countermeasures for road engineering

The Palongzangbu River Basin contains the highest number of maritime province glaciers in China.There are 130 glacial lakes,64 snow avalanche sites and 28 glacial debris flow gullies distributed within the basin.Snow disasters play a controlling role in the Sichuan-Tibet Highway construction,due to the terrain's special characteristics of high altitude and large height differential.Segmentation mitigation countermeasures for the Sichuan-Tibet Highway are presented based on snow disaster severity level and damage mode of the road.In the Ranwu to Midui section,snow avalanches are regional disasters, so the line should be placed in sunny slopes.In the Midui Gully to Yupu section,the line should be placed in shady slopes and at higher elevations to reduce the risk of glacial lake outburst.In the Yupu to Guxiang section,all three snow disasters are minimal.In the Guxiang to Tongmai section,glacier debris flows are the major threat,thus the road should be placed in shady slopes.     

SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS IN THE MORTERATSCH PRO‐GLACIAL ZONE,BERNINA ALPS,SWITZERLAND

Suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in the Ova da Morteratsch, Switzerland, measured during July 2007 was closely associated with discharge (Q) and showed statistically significant relationships at the p < 0.001 level at the proximal and distal ends of the 600 m pro‐glacial zone. SSC predicted from 10‐minute turbidity records gives a much more detailed insight into SSC fluctuations and identified SSC peaks which do not coincide with discharge peaks. Net (proximal – distal) 10‐minute suspended sediment loads (SSL) are predominantly positive (i.e. suspended sediment is being stored in the reach) for most of the 7–19 July 2007 record. Net (proximal – distal) SSLs correlate closely with discharge for the first part of the record (7–13 July) but from 14 to 19 July suspended sediment exhaustion is in evidence and discrete phases of negative net SSL (i.e. sediment flushing) are likely for up to six hours on three separate days which coincide with phases of high discharge and exhaustion of the glacial suspended sediment sources. Analysis of Q at the Berninabach–Pontresina gauging station (5 km downstream) for the past five years revealed that maximum monthly discharges capable of generating sediment flushing events occur in an average of four months each year. The study emphasises the rapid change in suspended sediment transport and yields with distance from the glacier snout and highlights the importance of measurements as close to the glacier snout as possible if data are to be representative of the glaciated land up‐valley. A better understanding of the processes of sediment exchange and the colonisation and stabilisation of sediment stores by vegetation in such pro‐glacial zones is essential if we are to improve predictions of the impacts of climate change on river sediment dynamics and the subsequent effects on aquatic ecology.     

Glacial and palaeoenvironmental history of the Cape Chelyuskin area, Arctic Russia

Quaternary glacial stratigraphy and relative sea-level changes reveal at least two glacial expansions over the Chelyuskin Peninsula, bordering the Kara Sea at about 77°N in the Russian Arctic, as indicated from tills interbedded with marine sediments, exposed in stratigraphic superposition, and from raised-beach sequences mapped to altitudes of at least up to ca. 80 m a.s.l. Chronological control is provided by accelerator mass spectrometry ¹⁴C dating, electron-spin resonance and optically stimulated luminescence geochronology. Major glaciations, followed by deglaciation and marine inundation, occurred during marine oxygen isotope stages 6–5e (MIS 6–5e) and stages MIS 5d–5c. These glacial sediments overlie marine sediments of Pliocene age, which are draped by fluvial sediment of a pre-Saalian age, thereby forming palaeovalley/basin fills in the post-Cretaceous topography. Till fabrics and glacial tectonics record expansions of local ice caps exclusively, suggesting wet-based ice cap advance, followed by cold-based regional ice-sheet expansion. Local ice caps over highland sites along the perimeter of the shallow Kara Sea, including the Byrranga Mountains and the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago, appear to have repeatedly fostered initiation of a large Kara Sea ice sheet, with the exception of the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2), when Kara Sea ice neither impacted the Chelyuskin Peninsula nor Severnaya Zemlya, and barely touched the northern coastal areas of the Taymyr Peninsula.     

Thickness estimation of the Longbasaba Glacier: methods and application

A total of 71,177 glaciers exist on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, according to the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI 6.0). Despite their large number, glacier ice thickness data are relatively scarce. This study utilizes digital elevation model data and ground-penetrating radar thickness measurements to estimate the distribution and variation of ice thickness of the Longbasaba Glacier using Glacier bed Topography (GlabTop), a full-width expansion model, and the Huss and Farinotti (HF) model. Results show that the average absolute deviations of GlabTop, the full-width expansion model, and the HF model are 9.8, 15.5, and 10.9 m, respectively, indicating that GlabTop performs the best in simulating glacier thickness distribution. During 1980-2015, the Longbasaba Glacier thinned by an average of 7.9±1.3 m or 0.23±0.04 m/a, and its ice volume shrunk by 0.28±0.04 km³ with an average reduction rate of 0.0081±0.0001 km³/a. In the investigation period, the area and volume of Longbasaba Lake expanded at rates of 0.12±0.01 km²/a and 0.0132±0.0018 km³/a, respectively. This proglacial lake could potentially extend up to 5,000 m from the lake dam.     

喜马拉雅山北坡冰碛湖库容计算及变化——以龙巴萨巴湖为例

喜马拉雅地区冰湖溃决洪水灾害日益受到人们重视。作为估算冰湖溃决洪峰流量和模拟洪水演进的必要参数之一,冰湖库容量准确计算十分重要。2009 年9 月对西藏定结县龙巴萨巴湖科考时,应用Hydrobox^TM高分辨率回声测深仪对该湖进行了测深试验,共采集6916 个离散数据点,测得冰湖最深处为101.94 m,平均水深47.50 m。结合同一时段Landsat TM遥感影像解译结果,通过构建不规则三角网模拟龙巴萨巴湖湖盆形态,并计算出该湖2009 年库容量为0.64×10⁸ m³。利用GIS技术对1977-2008 年不同年份的Landsat MSS、地形图、Landsat TM和ASTER遥感影像进行数字化,结果表明近30 年来龙巴萨巴湖长度和面积均呈增加趋势,且自2000 年以来更为显著。利用不同时期龙巴萨巴湖面积和计算的库容量,得到冰碛湖库容-面积计算公式,可为喜马拉雅地区其他冰碛湖库容量估算提供理论参考。龙巴萨巴湖的扩张方向与其母冰川后退方向保持一致。通过对龙巴萨巴湖所在区域中国境内5 个气象站点气温、降水数据的年代际变化分析,表明冰湖规模扩大是气候变暖和冰川退缩的产物。     

青藏高原冰湖研究进展及趋势

冰湖是由于冰川活动或者退缩产生的融水在冰川前部或者侧部汇集而成的,可分为冰川终碛湖(冰碛阻塞湖)、冰川阻塞湖、冰斗湖和冰蚀槽谷湖。其中分布数量较多、规模较大,且灾害风险较高的是冰川终碛湖。因此,冰川终碛湖是研究冰湖的主要对象。受全球气候变暖的影响,冰湖溃决产生的洪水、泥石流等重大冰川灾害的发生频率有所升高,灾害的影响程度以及范围也有所加大,引起了冰川山地国家的广泛关注。青藏高原内部发育着36793条现代冰川,冰川面积49873.44km2,分别占中国冰川总条数、总面积和冰储量的79.5%、84%和81.6%。在全球气候变暖的大背景下,多数冰川呈加速消融及退缩的态势,导致了冰湖溃决洪水和冰川泥石流等重大冰川灾害发生频率的加剧和影响程度的加大。本文围绕冰湖溃决条件、冰湖稳定性评价、冰湖溃决洪水模拟等几个研究方面,对青藏高原冰湖研究的现状及进展进行了较为系统的总结,并对未来研究趋势进行了展望。     

基于流量监测的西藏东南部然乌湖水量平衡季节变化及其补给过程分析

青藏高原分布着亚洲大陆最大的湖泊群,其湖泊变化对气候变化响应敏感。基于遥感数据的湖泊面积变化不足以反映外流湖对气候变化的响应,需借助湖泊水量平衡过程分析来进一步研究各补给要素的变化。本文利用2015年4月-11月然乌湖水文气象监测数据,通过建立流量—水位关系,依据连续的水位数据重建了观测期内然乌湖主要径流的水文过程线,并结合SRM模型分析了然乌湖的水量平衡过程及季节变化。结果表明,观测期内然乌湖入湖水量约为18.49×10⁸ m³,其中冰川融水约为10.06×10⁸ m³,冰川融水占然乌湖补给的54%以上,湖面降水、湖面蒸发对湖泊水量平衡过程影响微弱。流域降水对湖泊的补给具有明显的季节特征。春季受西风南支扰动影响,然乌湖地区降水量大,降水是春季然乌湖的主要补给源。夏季和早秋由于气温升高,冰川消融量大,冰川融水是湖泊补给的主控因素。在未来气候变暖的条件下,冰川融水将会在湖泊补给中占据更大比例,并可能使得流域内的冰湖水量增加,产生潜在灾害风险。     

GIS‐based modeling of glacial hazards and their interactions using Landsat‐TM and IKONOS imagery

Hazard interactions in glacial and periglacial environments are of crucial importance due to their potential for causing major catastrophes. Nevertheless, glacial and periglacial hazards have usually been modeled separately to date. In this study, we therefore propose a methodological strategy for modeling and assessing glacial and periglacial hazard interactions on a regional scale, including ice avalanches, lake outbursts and periglacial debris flows. Due to climate‐related rapid changes in glacial and periglacial areas, methods which incorporate monitoring capacities are needed. Hence, the methods presented here are based on remote sensing data, which are particularly powerful for monitoring tasks, and GIS modeling. For ice avalanche and lake‐outburst hazard detection and modeling, we applied recently published methods based on Landsat‐TM imagery, terrain modeling and flow routing. For detection of potential debris‐flow initiation zones in steep debris reservoirs, we present a novel method based on image processing of IKONOS data and terrain modeling, followed by flow modeling. Using this method, we achieve the synthesis of the individual process modeling in order to assess the potential interactions. The modeling is applied to a study region in the central Swiss Alps. The results show that systematic modeling based on remote sensing and GIS is suitable for first‐order assessment of glacial and periglacial hazard interactions as well as assessments of possible consequences, including impacts on traffic routes and other infrastructure. Based on this, critical cases can be detected and analyzed by subsequent detailed studies.