Mechanism on Moho offset induced by aseismic slip of deeply buried faults

Recent high-resolution deep seismic reflection profile across the Kunlun fault in northeastern Tibet shows clearly that the Moho is cut off by a complex thrust fault system. Moho offset is a general phenomenon, but little is known about the dynamic mechanism. In this study, contact models with Maxwell materials are used to simulate the mechanical process of Moho offset induced by the aseismic slip of deeply buried faults. Based on the seismic reflection data, we project a single fault model and a complex fault system model with two faults intersecting. The deformations of the Moho, the aseismic slips, and contact stresses on faults in different models are discussed in detail. Results show that the Moho offset might be produced by aseismic slip of deeply buried faults, and the magnitude is influenced by the friction coefficient of faults and the viscosity of the lower crust. The maximum slip occurs near the Moho on the single fault or at the crossing point of two intersecting faults system. Stress concentrates mainly on the Moho, the deep end of faults, or the crossing point. This study will throw light on understanding the mechanism of Moho offset and aseismic slip of deeply buried faults. The results of complex fault system with two faults intersecting are also useful to understand the shallow intersecting faults that may cause earthquakes.     

Internal structures and high-velocity frictional properties of a bedding-parallel carbonate fault at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop activated by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

This paper reports internal structures of a bedding-parallel fault in Permian limestone at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop that was moved by about 0.5 m during the 2008 M_W7.9 Wenchuan earthquake. The fault is located about 3 km to the south from the middle part of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, a major fault in the Longmenshan fault system that was moved during the earthquake. The outcrop is also located at Anxian transfer zone between the northern and central segments of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault where fault system is complex. Thus the fault is an example of subsidiary faults activated by Wenchuan earthquake. The fault has a strike of 243° or N63°E and a dip of 38°NW and is nearly optimally oriented for thrust motion, in contrast to high-angle coseismic faults at most places. Surface outcrop and two shallow drilling studies reveal that the fault zone is several centimeters wide at most and that the coseismic slip zone during Wenchuan earthquake is about 1 mm thick. Fault zone contains foliated cataclasite, fault breccia, black gouge and yellowish gouge. Many clasts of foliated cataclasite and black gouge contained in fault breccia indicate multiple slip events along this fault. But fossils on both sides of fault do not indicate clear age difference and overall displacement along this fault should not be large. We also report results from high-velocity friction experiments conducted on yellowish gouge from the fault zone using a rotary shear low to high-velocity frictional testing apparatus. Dry experiments at normal stresses of 0.4 to 1.8 MPa and at slip rates of 0.08 to 1.35 m/s reveal dramatic slip weakening from the peak friction coefficient of around 0.6 to very low steady-state friction coefficient of 0.1-0.2. Slip weakening parameters of this carbonate fault zone are similar to those of clayey fault gouge from Yingxiu-Beichuan fault at Hongkou outcrop and from Pingxi fault zone. Our experimental result will provide a condition for triggering movement of subsidiary faults or off-fault damage during a large earthquake.     

Robust inversion analysis of local gravity anomalies caused by geological dislocation model of faults

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斜交断层之间的相互作用

本文根据弹性静力位错理论,讨论了均匀各向同性的弹性半空间中水平面内央任何斜交角度的走滑断层之间的相互影响问题。为了便于从数学上讨论,本文中作了一些假定。根据这些假定,讨论了Y型、V型和X型这三种类型的斜交断层之间的相互影响,井讨论了T型和十字型这两种特殊交汇断层之间的相互作用。结果表明,这几种斜交断层之间的相互影响与其几何配置有关,即位于发震断层附近不同范围内的与之斜交的断层受发震断层的影响不同。这些理论结果对地震危险性的估计和地震预报是有用的。     

印尼地区地震断层面上的海潮负荷应力特征

对印尼地区3574次M≥5.0地震震源断层面上的海潮负荷应力进行计算,研究了地震断层上的负荷应力随深度变化以及随断层倾角和走向的变化特征.结果表明,地震断层上的负荷正应力大于负荷切应力.逆断层上的负荷应力最大,其它依次为斜滑断层、正断层和走滑断层.倾角范围在0°—50°的断层上的负荷正应力随倾角增大有减小趋势,负荷切应力在30°—50°倾角范围的断层上较大.负荷应力随断层走向的趋势性变化不明显.不同类型断层上的负荷正应力和切应力在震源深度15km处均达到最大,之后随深度增加而减小.当震源深度小于40km时,断层面上的海潮负荷应力的量级与固体潮应力相当.因此指出,在潮汐应力对地震影响的研究中,对震源深度小于40km的海洋和沿海地震,除固体潮汐应力外还需要考虑海潮负荷应力的影响.     

沂沭断裂带及其附近断裂的断层泥分形特征及其地震地质意义

利用岩石碎裂数目的分形理论，分析，计算了沂沭断裂带及其西侧北西向断裂的断层泥粒度成分的分维值，讨论了断层泥粒度成分分维的地震地质意义，研究结果表明，沂沭断裂带内的断裂活动的强度大于北西向断裂活动强度；Ｆ２是沂沭断裂带中活动最强的一条断裂，断层泥粒度成分分维值可作为表征断裂活动时代，破裂形式和断层泥形成斫代等的参量；分维值还与断层泥的母岩，厚度，粘土矿物含量和所处的断裂部位等相关。     

A numerical method of viscoelastic finite element coupled with spring-block model to simulate the interaction of faults and crustal blocks

A numerical method of viscoelastic finite element coupled with spring-block model is developed to study temporal processes from the slow tectonic motion of large-scale crust to the rapid failure of small-scale faults. Our modeling demonstrates that the motion of crustal blocks is driven by forces from tectonic plate boundaries, and the deformation is distributed on faults for the stress accumulating. The coupling model generates earthquake sequences that display a magnitude-frequency scaling consistent with Gutenberg-Richter law. The frictional heterogeneities affeci earthquakes occurrence and stresses distribution of crustal blocks. Rupture of earthquakes starts at the nucleation node, and propagates bilaterally along faults with the stress triggering, release and redistribution. The failure of faults releases part of crustal stresses, the stress state of crustal blocks near fault is affected by the rupture of local segments on the fault, and the stress state of crustal blocks far away from the fault is controlled by the seismic activity of the whole fault.     

A numerical method of viscoelastic finite element coupled with spring-block model to simulate the interaction of faults and crustal blocks

A numerical method of viscoelastic finite element coupled with spring-block model is developed to study temporal processes from the slow tectonic motion of large-scale crust to the rapid failure of small-scale faults. Our modeling demonstrates that the motion of crustal blocks is driven by forces from tectonic plate boundaries, and the deformation is distributed on faults for the stress accumulating. The coupling model generates earthquake sequences that display a magnitude-frequency scaling consistent with Gutenberg-Richter law. The frictional heterogeneities affect earthquakes occurrence and stresses distribution of crustal blocks. Rupture of earthquakes starts at the nucleation node, and propagates bilaterally along faults with the stress triggering, release and redistribution. The failure of faults releases part of crustal stresses, the stress state of crustal blocks near fault is affected by the rupture of local segments on the fault, and the stress state of crustal blocks far away from the fault is controlled by the seismic activity of the whole fault.     

Study of fault slip modes

We present the data of the laboratory experiments on studying the regularities of gradual transition from the stick-slip behavior to aseismic creeping on the interblock boundary. The experiments show that small variations in the material composition in the principal slip zones of the faults may cause a significant change in the fraction of seismic energy radiated during the dynamic unloading of the adjacent segment of the rock mass. The experiments simulate interblock sliding regimes with the values of the scaled kinetic energy differing by a few orders of magnitude and relatively small distinctions in the strength of the contacts and in the amplitude of the released shear stresses. The results of the experiments show that the slip mode and the fraction of the deformation energy that goes into the seismic radiation are determined by the ratio of two parameters—the stiffness of the fault and the stiffness of the enclosing rock mass. An important implication of the study for solving the engineering tasks is that for bringing a stressed segment of a fault or a crack into a slip mode with low-intensity radiation of seismic energy, the anthropogenic impact should be aimed at diminishing the stiffness of the fault zone rather than at releasing the excessive stresses.     

地壳深部稳定性——震源体破裂机制和摩擦滑动机制的综合研究

本文通过地壳应力测量结果和地震资料的综合分析,对深部应力状态与断层运动的关系作了讨论:进而应用库仑准则,推导了三维应力作用下完整岩体和已有的任意空间方向断层面的失稳条件及其滑动方式的解析表达式.通过建立描述岩体和已有断层稳定性的两个函数————破裂函数 Fm 和摩擦函数 Ff,给出了应用破裂机制和摩擦滑动机制综合分析地壳稳定性和失稳性态的方法:根据这种分析方法并结合华北平原区的水压致裂应力测量资料,以及孔隙压力、大地热流等观测结果,定量研究了本区地壳的稳定问题,计算并图示了地壳内破裂函数沿深度的分布,以及各种走向和倾向断层面上的摩擦函数和剪应力分布;计算中以 Byerlee 定律作为断层运动的约束条件,并考虑了地壳密度纵向非均匀性导致的垂直应力沿深度的非线性增长以及深部超静水压力的异常孔隙压力作用.结果表明,华北平原区地壳失稳性态主要表现为已有断层的滑动;伴有高剪应力降的断层运动的深度范围在8至2.0多公里之间:陡断层稳定性低于缓断层,其运动方式以走滑为主;本区 NNE-NE 走向的陡断层是一组易震断层,其震时错动为右旋走滑;孔隙压力的增长对地壳稳定性有显著的影响;华北平原区深部高异常孔隙压力是地震活动的一种重要背景.      

Coseismic deformation of the 2020 Yutian MW 6.4 earthquake from Sentinel-1A and the slip inversion

A remarkable earthquake struck Yutian, China on June 26th, 2020. Here, we use Sentinel-1 images to investigate the deformation induced by this event. We invert the InSAR observations using a two-step approach: a nonlinear inversion to constrain fault geometries with uniform slip based on the rectangular plane dislocation in an elastic half-space, followed by a linear inversion to retrieve the slip distribution on the fault plane. The results show that the maximum LOS displacement is 22.6 ​cm, and the fault accessed to the ruptured characteristics of normal faults with the minor left-lateral strike-slip component. The fault model indicates a 210° strike. The main rupture zone concentrates in the depth of 5–15 ​km, and the fault slip peaks at 0.89 ​m at the depth of 9 ​km. Then, we calculate the variation of the static Coulomb stress based on the optimal fault model, the results suggest that the Coulomb stress of the Altyn Tagh fault and other neighboring faults has increased and more attention should be paid to possible seismic risks.     

北京地区地应力测量与主要断裂稳定性分析

2008年汶川地震后,为查明北京地区现今地应力状态、评价断裂稳定性,相继在北京地区开展了5个深孔（600~1000 m）的水压致裂法地应力测量,并在适宜深度安装了地应力相对变化监测探头,建立了地应力变化监测台站.本文首先利用实测地应力数据分析了北京地区地壳浅表层应力状态,结果表明：（1）北京地区千米深度内,最大、最小水平主应力随深度增加梯度系数分别为0.0328和0.0221,侧压系数K_av和K_Hv值,最大、最小水平主应力之比K_Hh值与国内外已有认识基本一致,而水平向剪应力相对强度参数μ_m值较低;（2）北京地区最大水平主应力优势方向为近EW向,与华北地区构造应力场方向基本一致,同时受区内断裂活动等影响,存在与区域主应力方向偏差的局部应力场;（3）实测数据揭示的应力结构显示,北京地区地壳浅表层最大主应力（σ₁）总体为最大水平主应力（σ_H）,受区域构造演化以及测点附近断裂的影响,中间主应力（σ₂）与最小主应力（σ₃）所对应的实测地应力存在变化,但总体来讲,实测地应力数据揭示的应力结构与北京地区主要断裂性质基本相吻合.其次,基于实测应力数据,采用库仑摩擦滑动准则,结合拜尔定律,并取摩擦系数为0.2~1.0,初步评价了北京地区主要断裂稳定性,结果显示：（1）在摩擦系数取0.6~1.0条件下,北京地区现今应力状态尚未达到导致断裂失稳滑动水平,断裂不会出现失稳滑动现象;（2）摩擦系数弱化到0.4时,西峰寺钻孔应力状态满足断裂失稳滑动条件,揭示出八宝山断裂存在失稳滑动可能性,而夏垫-马坊断裂和黄庄-高丽营断裂附近测点应力状态将趋近满足断裂失稳滑动条件,表明这两条断裂有趋向失稳滑动可能性;（3）只有当摩擦系数弱化到0.2时,北京地区主要断裂才可能在现今应力状态出现断裂失稳滑动.本文的认识对北京地区乃至华北地区构造应力场、地震地质研究有重要参考意义.     

Theoretical and quantitative analyses of the fault slip rate uncertainties from single event and erosion of the accumulated offset

Fault slip rate is one of the most important subjects in active tectonics research, which reveals the activity and seismic potential of a fault. Due to the improvement of dating precision with the development of dating methods, Holocene geological markers, even the young markers of thousands or hundreds of years old, are widely used in fault slip rate calculation. Usually, uncertainties from a single event and erosion of the accumulated offsets are involved in fault slip rate determination. Two types of uncertainties are related to a single event; the first is the time elapsed since the latest (the most recent) event; the second is the period since the formation of the geological marker to the occurrence of the first event. High‐slip‐rate faults are more sensitive to these uncertainties than low‐slip‐rate faults. In this study, we studied quantitatively the effects of a single event on fault slip rate following the three classic earthquake models: the characteristic earthquake, uniform slip and variable slip models. We suggest that the erosion of the accumulated offset–lateral erosion on a strike‐slip fault, should also be considered in fault slip estimation. Therefore, we propose a differential method to obtain a reliable fault slip rate. In the differential method, the slip rate is the ratio of offset differentials and corresponding age differentials between the older and younger terraces along strike‐slip faults. This kind of differential method could avoid the uncertainties from the first and latest events, as well as that from the lateral erosion. By applying the differential method, we got the revised slip rates of ∼5–10 mm/year on the Altyn Tagh and Kunlun faults. These low slip rates could fit previous geodetic and geological fault slip rates and shortening rates as well as the millennial recurrence intervals of strong earthquakes along the major segments of these faults.     

郯庐断裂带白山-卅铺段第四纪以来的活动习性

根据构造地貌遥感解析,发现郯庐断裂带沿庐江白山到桐城卅铺一线显示1组平行断层,现场地震地质调查验证其为1组活动断层。通过断层剖面观测、样品采集及样品测试分析和宏微观构造分析,结果表明,郯庐断裂带在白山—卅铺一带第四纪以来仍具有黏滑、蠕滑交替的变形活动。其中,在柯坦—卅铺一带,最年轻的水系被NE向断层组右旋扭折,其断层物质的微观观测和测龄结果表明该断裂段第四纪时的活动具有脆、塑性过渡变形特征,强烈活动时间处于早、中更新世;而白山剖面断层泥年龄测试结果则反映相应断层段在中、晚更新世曾有过较强烈的活动。断层泥超微(SEM)和显微观测结果亦表明该断裂段曾发生黏滑、蠕滑交替的构造变形事件,且表现为先黏滑后蠕滑;结合水系呈现缓慢扭折表征,近年来沿断裂有不少微震发生,表明郯庐断裂带在白山—卅铺段的最新滑移方式主要表现为蠕滑,也就是说,该段积累的应力以蠕滑或微震等方式缓慢释放,据此推测未来一定时期内不易孕育强烈地震     

Recipe for Predicting Strong Ground Motion from Crustal Earthquake Scenarios

We developed a recipe for predicting strong ground motions based on a characterization of the source model for future crustal earthquakes. From recent developments of waveform inversion of strong motion data used to estimate the rupture process, we have inferred that strong ground motion is primarily related to the slip heterogeneity inside the source rather than average slip in the entire rupture area. Asperities are characterized as regions that have large slip relative to the average slip on the rupture area. The asperity areas, as well as the total rupture area, scale with seismic moment. We determined that the areas of strong motion generation approximately coincide with the asperity areas. Based on the scaling relationships, the deductive source model for the prediction of strong ground motions is characterized by three kinds of parameters: outer, inner, and extra fault parameters. The outer fault parameters are defined as entire rupture area and total seismic moment. The inner fault parameters are defined as slip heterogeneity inside the source, area of asperities, and stress drop on each asperity based on the multiple-asperity model. The pattern of rupture nucleation and termination are the extra fault parameters that are related to geomorphology of active faults. We have examined the validity of the earthquake sources constructed by our recipe by comparing simulated and observed ground motions from recent inland crustal earthquakes, such as the 1995 Kobe and 2005 Fukuoka earthquakes.     

Structural analysis of the Brigham City-Weber segment boundary zone,Wasatch normal fault,Utah: Implications for fault growth and structure

We investigate the history, kinematics, principal stress orientations and geometry of deformation at the end of a bent normal fault segment of the Wasatch fault zone, Utah. Three fault types, developed in Archean crystalline rocks, reflect progressive uplift of fault-related footwall rocks. Chlorite-breccias and phyllonites reflect deep-level, reaction-assisted plastic deformation along the north-striking part of the segment. Planar, fretted faults which formed by cataclasis cut the phyllonites and breccias and are developed throughout the footwall of the segment. Youngest faults are hematitecoated, extremely narrow polished surfaces. Slip vectors and kinematic analyses of small faults developed in the footwall indicate oblique normal slip along the north-striking portion of the segment. Slip vectors and fault orientation along the northwest-striking portion of the segment reflect complexly oriented slip on faults which strike subparallel and at high angles to the main fault trace, yet slip is confined to a broad fault-parallel zone. Small faults at the southernmost tip of the segment indicate a strong influence of the north-striking Weber segment to the south. Inversion of fault data for principal stress orientations document complexly oriented principal stresses through the segment boundary zone and suggest that ₃ may have reoriented approximately 60° over the life of the segment. Subsurface structure combined with small fault data indicate the segment boundary is comprised of a southwest-plunging bedrock high which is reflected by a sharp bend in the Brigham City segment. The southern end of the Brigham City segment may have started, as a straight, north-striking fault which has bent due to changes in stress orientations and/or interaction with the adjacent Weber segment.     

用分形理论研究海南岛的活动断裂

在编制海南岛及其邻近地区地震构造图的基础上，利用数盒子法计算了海南岛的活动断裂的分形维数，并从分形理论的角度讨论了活动断裂和地震活动性之间的关系，认为活动断裂的分形维数和地震活动性的分形维数是相等的。从活动断裂的分形维数和地震活动性的分形维数的一致性来看，区域性的地震活动可能受到该地区活动断裂空间分布的制约和作用。     

Fractal size and spatial distributions of fault zones: An investigation into the seismic Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan

Abstract   The fractality of fault zones of thickness T for the 248-m-long core from a borehole penetrating the northern segment of the seismic Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan, was analyzed. The frequency curve of T shows that the fractal dimension is normal when T is smaller than a characteristic thickness T _c, and it becomes abnormally large when T exceeds T _c. The fractal dimensions of size and spatial distributions of T increase as the mean distribution density of T increases, which is inconsistent with the evolution laws for ordinary brittle faults. This discrepancy implies that the thickening rate of T when T is more than T _c is not constant, but a decreasing function of fault displacement. The slow thickening rate is related to the elastohydrodynamic lubrication which was effective on the fault when T exceeds T _c. This slip instability mechanism can explain the large, fast and smooth slip on the northern segment of the Chelungpu Fault during the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake.     

Incremental growth of normal faults: Insights from a laser-equipped analog experiment

We conducted a laser-equipped analog experiment aimed at quasi-continuously monitoring the growth of a dense population of normal faults in homogeneous conditions. To further understand the way geological faults progressively gain in slip and length as they accumulate more strain, we measured with great precision the incremental slip and length changes that the analog faults sustain as they grow. These measurements show that the analog faults share common features with the natural ones. In particular, during their growth, the faults develop and maintain cumulative slip profiles that are generally triangular and asymmetric. The growth takes place through two distinct phases: an initial, short period of rapid lateral lengthening, followed by a longer phase of slip accumulation with little or no lengthening. The incremental slip is found to be highly variable in both space (along the faults) and time, resulting in variable slip rates. In particular, ‘short- and long-term’ slip rates are markedly different. We also find that slip measurements at local points on fault traces do not contain clear information on the slip increment repeat mode. Finally, while the fault growth process is highly heterogeneous when considered at the scale of a few slip events, it appears homogeneous and self-similar at longer time scales which integrate many slip increments. This is likely to be the result of a feedback between stress heterogeneities and slip development. The long-term scale homogeneity also implies that the long-term faulting process is primarily insensitive to the short-term heterogeneities that are rapidly smoothed or redistributed. We propose a new conceptual scenario of fault growth that integrates the above observations and we suggest that faults grow in a bimodal way as a result of a self-driven and self-sustaining process.