Microstructural Inhomogeneity and Mechanical Anisotropy Associated with Bedding in Rothbach Sandstone

This study present the result of conventional triaxial tests conducted on samples of Rothbach sandstone cored parallel, oblique (at 45 degrees) and perpendicular to the bedding at effective pressures ranging from 5 to 250 MPa. Mechanical and microstructural data were used to determine the role of the bedding on mechanical strength and failure mode. We find that samples cored at 45 degrees to the bedding yield at intermediate level of differential stress between the ones for parallel and perpendicular samples at all effective pressures. Strain localization at high confining pressure (i.e., in the compactive domain) is observed in samples perpendicular and oblique to the bedding but not in samples cored parallel to the bedding. However, porosity reduction is comparable whether compactive shear bands, compaction bands or homogeneous cataclastic flow develop. Microstructural data suggest that (1) mechanical anisotropy is controlled by a preferred intergranular contact alignment parallel to the bedding and that (2) localization of compaction is controlled by bedding laminations and grain scale heterogeneity, which both prevent the development of well localized compaction features.     

高孔隙岩石变形的离散单元模型

实验和野外观测表明颗粒破碎显著影响高孔隙岩石的变形特征.为建立高孔隙岩石变形的数值模型,我们以弹性理论为基础并根据问题的特征进行合理简化,给出了一种颗粒破碎机制,并根据此颗粒破碎条件改进传统的离散单元模型.利用改进的离散单元模型,研究了不同压力条件下高孔隙岩石变形的宏观和微观特征.数值模拟结果表明考虑颗粒破碎的模型能重现高孔隙岩石在不同围压下变形的应力-应变关系、声发射特征、应变局部化和剪切增强压缩等特征.我们还发现,与野外观测结果一致,在高孔隙岩石脆性阶段剪切带内部及附近伴有显著的颗粒破碎.     

Acoustic Emissions Monitoring during Inelastic Deformation of Porous Sandstone: Comparison of Three Modes of Deformation

In some reservoirs, large deformations can occur during oil or gas production because of the effective stress change. For very porous rocks, these production operations can be sufficient to cause inelastic deformation and irreversible damage. Rock formations can undergo deformation by different mechanisms, including dilatancy or pore collapse. In the laboratory, it has been shown that the inelastic deformation and failure mode of porous rocks are pressure sensitive. Indeed, when subjected to an overall compressive loading, a porous rock may fail by shear localization, compaction localization, or by cataclastic compaction. Acoustic emission (AE) records provide important information to understand the failure mode of rocks: the spatial evolution of damage as well as the source mechanisms can be followed using this technique. In this paper, we present three different laboratory axisymmetric compression experiments, performed on Bleurswiller sandstone, which enable us to compare the acoustic emission signature of these three modes of deformation. Our data show that compaction localization and cataclastic compaction are characterized by similar acoustic signatures (in terms of AE sources characteristics and evolution of AE number), in comparison to the acoustic signature from shear localization. This implies similar micromechanisms involved during compaction bands formation and cataclastic compaction.     

水饱和裂纹对地壳岩样中地震波速及各向异性的影响

选择４种地壳岩石样品,经干燥或水饱和处理后在不同围压条件下测量了在其中传播的纵、横波的速度及其各向异性．在大气压条件下低孔隙度(＜１％岩样中,水饱和样品中的纵波速度明显地比干燥样品中的高,但横波速度的差别不大．因为在低孔隙度岩样中纵波速度对孔隙流体的反应比横波速度敏感,可以用泊松比的变化来反映随着围压的增加晶粒间流体对弹性波传播特性的影响．根据实验数据,按Ｏ’Ｃｏｎｎｅｌｌ模型分别计算了干燥和水饱和岩样中的裂纹密度,与通过实测体应变曲线得到的裂纹孔隙度十分吻合．利用横波的速度和偏振特性可以推断岩样中定向排列微裂纹的空间取向情况．研究表明,同时测量在岩样中传播的纵、横波的速度,通过Ｖｐ／Ｖｓ比值可以给出有关颗粒边界流体的证据,也可以估计岩样中的裂纹密度．     

Mechanical compaction and ultrasonic velocity of sands with different texture and mineralogical composition

This study presents the results of experimental compaction while measuring ultrasonic velocities of sands with different grain size, shape, sorting and mineralogy. Uniaxial mechanical compaction tests up to a maximum of 50 MPa effective stress were performed on 29 dry sand aggregates derived from eight different sands to measure the rock properties. A good agreement was found between the Gassmann saturated bulk moduli of dry and brine saturated tests of selected sands. Sand samples with poor sorting showed low initial porosity while sands with high grain angularity had high initial porosity. The sand compaction tests showed that at a given stress well‐sorted, coarse‐grained sands were more compressible and had higher velocities (Vp and Vs) than fine‐grained sands when the mineralogy was similar. This can be attributed to grain crushing, where coarser grains lead to high compressibility and large grain‐to‐grain contact areas result in high velocities. At medium to high stresses the angular coarse to medium grained sands (both sorted sands and un‐sorted whole sands) showed high compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs). The small grain‐to‐grain contact areas promote higher deformation at grain contacts, more crushing and increased porosity loss resulting in high velocities. Compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs) increased with decreasing sorting in sands. However, at the same porosity, the velocities in whole sands were slightly lower than in the well‐sorted sands indicating the presence of loose smaller grains in‐between the framework grains. Quartz‐poor sands (containing less than 55% quartz) showed higher velocities (Vp and Vs) compared to that of quartz‐rich sands. This could be the result of sintering and enlargement of grain contacts of ductile mineral grains in the quartz‐poor sands increasing the effective bulk and shear stiffness. Tests both from wet measurements and Gassmann brine substitution showed a decreasing Vp/Vs ratio with increasing effective stress. The quartz‐rich sands separated out towards the higher side of the Vp/Vs range. The Gassmann brine substituted Vp and Vs plotted against effective stress provide a measure of the expected velocity range to be found in these and similar sands during mechanical compaction. Deviations of actual well log data from experimental data may indicate uplift, the presence of hydrocarbon, overpressure and/or cementation. Data from this study may help to model velocity‐depth trends and to improve the characterization of reservoir sands from well log data in a low temperature (<80–100^o C) zone where compaction of sands is mostly mechanical.     

韧性剪切带及其变形岩石

本文讨论了地壳和上地幔中韧性剪切带及其中的变形岩石。在大多数情况下,韧性剪切带中的变形岩石为糜棱岩,因为经受韧性剪切变形时,岩石的粒度显著减小并发育了强化的叶理(线理)。但是在某些情况下,例如,当隐晶质灰岩及富含长石的岩石经受韧性剪切变形时,剪切带中的变形岩石粒度局部增大或者没有发生明显减小,它们并不是典型的糜棱岩。由于变形环境、变形介质及变形机制的不同,韧性剪切带内岩石变形的产物是不同的     

Controls on sonic velocity in carbonates

Compressional and shear-wave velocities (V _p andV _s) of 210 minicores of carbonates from different areas and ages were measured under variable confining and pore-fluid pressures. The lithologies of the samples range from unconsolidated carbonate mud to completely lithified limestones. The velocity measurements enable us to relate velocity variations in carbonates to factors such as mineralogy, porosity, pore types and density and to quantify the velocity effects of compaction and other diagenetic alterations.Pure carbonate rocks show, unlike siliciclastic or shaly sediments, little direct correlation between acoustic properties (V _p andV _s) with age or burial depth of the sediments so that velocity inversions with increasing depth are common. Rather, sonic velocity in carbonates is controlled by the combined effect of depositional lithology and several post-depositional processes, such as cementation or dissolution, which results in fabrics specific to carbonates. These diagenetic fabrics can be directly correlated to the sonic velocity of the rocks.At 8 MPa effective pressureV _p ranges from 1700 to 6500 m/s, andV _s ranges from 800 to 3400 m/s. This range is mainly caused by variations in the amount and type of porosity and not by variations in mineralogy. In general, the measured velocities show a positive correlation with density and an inverse correlation with porosity, but departures from the general trends of correlation can be as high as 2500 m/s. These deviations can be explained by the occurrence of different pore types that form during specific diagenetic phases. Our data set further suggests that commonly used correlations like Gardner's Law (V _p-density) or the time-average-equation (V _p-porosity) should be significantly modified towards higher velocities before being applied to carbonates.The velocity measurements of unconsolidated carbonate mud at different stages of experimental compaction show that the velocity increase due to compaction is lower than the observed velocity increase at decreasing porosities in natural rocks. This discrepancy shows that diagenetic changes that accompany compaction influence velocity more than solely compaction at increasing overburden pressure.The susceptibility of carbonates to diagenetic changes, that occur far more quickly than compaction, causes a special velocity distribution in carbonates and complicates velocity estimations. By assigning characteristic velocity patterns to the observed diagenetic processes, we are able to link sonic velocity to the diagenetic stage of the rock.     

不同围压下孔隙度不同的干燥及水饱和岩样中的纵横波速度及衰减

选择具有不同孔隙度的三种岩石样品,在最高达600MPa （干燥样品）或300MPa （水饱和样品）的不同围压条件下,同时测量了在其中传播的纵、横波的速度及衰减。对于低孔隙度的花岗岩,干燥和水饱和样品的 Q 值几乎没有差别,但与干燥样品相比,水饱和样品中的纵波速度较高而横波速度稍低。对于中等孔隙度的杂砂岩,干燥样品和水饱和样品的波速和 Q 值及其随围压的变化有明显的不同。在高孔隙度的砂岩中这种不同更加显著。综合分析同时测得的纵、横波速度和 Q 值可以发现,当围压增加时,低孔隙度的花岗岩中同体应变相关的能量损失与同剪切应变相关的能量损失之比减小,但在中等孔隙度的杂砂岩和高孔隙度的砂岩中这一比值增大;同时,水饱和样品中的这一比值要比干燥样品中的大,而且它们之间的差别同样品的孔隙度正相关。     

Failure Mode and Spatial Distribution of Damage in Rothbach Sandstone in the Brittle-ductile Transition

— To elucidate the spatial complexity of damage and evolution of localized failure in the transitional regime from brittle faulting to cataclastic ductile flow in a porous sandstone, we performed a series of triaxial compression experiments on Rothbach sandstone (20% porosity). Quantitative microstructural analysis and X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging were conducted on deformed samples. Localized failure was observed in samples at effective pressures ranging from 5 MPa to 130 MPa. In the brittle faulting regime, dilating shear bands were observed. The CT images and stereological measurements reveal the geometric complexity and spatial heterogeneity of damage in the failed samples. In the transitional regime (at effective pressures between 45 MPa and 130 MPa), compacting shear bands at high angles and compaction bands perpendicular to the maximum compression direction were observed. The laboratory results suggest that these complex localized features can be pervasive in sandstone formations, not just limited to the very porous aeolian sandstone in which they were first documented. The microstructural observations are in qualitative agreement with theoretical predictions of bifurcation analyses, except for the occurrence of compaction bands in the sample deformed at effective pressure of 130 MPa. The bifurcation analysis with the constitutive model used in this paper is nonadequate to predict compaction band formation, may be due to the neglect of bedding anisotropy of the rock and multiple yield mechanisms in the constitutive model.     

不同围压条件下的圆形巷道岩爆过程模拟

利用FLAC模拟了不同围压条件下圆形巷道的岩爆过程。为了模拟巷道开挖,利用编写的FISH函数删除巷道内部的单元。岩石服从摩尔库仑剪破坏与拉破坏复合的破坏准则,破坏之后呈现应变软化-理想塑性行为。模拟结果表明：当围压较低时,剪切应变集中区域呈圆环状,围岩能保持稳定,不出现剪切带;当围压增加到一定程度时,围岩中出现了“狗耳”形的V形坑,发生岩爆,但围岩也还能保持稳定;当围压进一步增加时,围岩中出现了多条狭长的剪切带,巷道的整个断面均遭到了破坏,发生强烈的岩爆。随着围压的增加,V形岩爆坑变大、变深,剪切带花样的对称性变差;在高围压时,剪切带花样与塑性力学中的滑移线网有类似之处。     

基于团簇的岩石动态CT图像可视化与结构变形分析

岩石的变形机制是研究岩石圈变形和局部构造活动的重要基础,岩石的微观结构是研究其变形机制的关键。微观层析成像（微观CT）技术可以无损地获取样品内部高精度三维数字化图像,为观测岩石内部结构提供了技术保证。新近发展起来的动态CT技术,使得观测岩石变形过程成为可能。本文利用一组莱塔石灰岩受差应力变形的三维动态CT图像数据,通过图像切割、图像分割等处理步骤,以团簇为基本表征单位,表征不同形状、大小孔隙的动态变化过程,分析对比全部孔隙、大团簇、小团簇和裂隙型小团簇的动态图像。结果表明:随着岩石的压缩变形,其大孔隙在不断地缩小;在变形的初始阶段,靠近施压活塞的样品上部出现了密集的新生小孔隙;当岩石所受差应力到达73 MPa时,其下半部出现了明显的剪切带,具体表现为大量的新生裂隙生成并且新生裂隙集中带与轴向成约45°交角。此前的研究观测到该样品中下部若干压缩带形成的过程;本文通过基于团簇的可视化技术,观测到了高孔隙度岩石变形过程中压缩带和剪切带共同形成的过程。同时,新生的沿剪切带分布的微小裂隙并没有显示与剪切带相同的方向,而是具有各方向均匀分布的特征。该特征可能与岩石内部复杂的局部孔隙结构有关,是值得进一步探讨的问题。      

Permeability Evolution During Non-linear Viscous Creep of Calcite Rocks

Permeability, storage capacity and volumetric strain were measured in situ during deformation of hot-pressed calcite aggregates containing 10, 20, and 30 wt% quartz. Both isostatic and conventional triaxial loading conditions were used. The tests were performed at confining pressure of 300 MPa, pore pressures between 50 to 290 MPa, temperatures from 673 to 873 K and strain rates of 3 × 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹. Argon gas was used as the pore fluid. The initial porosities of the starting samples varied from 5% to 9%, with higher porosity correlated to higher quartz content. Microstructural observations after the experiment indicate two kinds of pores are present: 1) Angular, crack-like pores along boundaries between quartz grains or between quartz and calcite grains and 2) equant and tubular voids within the calcite matrix. Under isostatic loading conditions, the compaction rate covaries with porosity and increases with increasing effective pressure. Most of the permeability reduction induced during compaction is irreversible and probably owes to plastic processes. As has been found in previous studies on hot-pressed calcite aggregates, permeability, k, is nonlinearly related to porosity, ϕ. Over small changes in porosity, the two parameters are approximately related as k ∝ ϕⁿ. The exponent n strongly increases as porosity decreases to a finite value (from about 4 to 6% depending on quartz content), suggesting a porosity percolation threshold. When subjected to triaxial deformation, the calcite-quartz aggregates exhibit shear-enhanced compaction, but permeability does not decrease as rapidly as it does under isostatic conditions. During triaxial compaction the exponent n only varies between 2 and 3. Non-isostatic deformation seems to reduce the percolation threshold, and, in fact, enhances the permeability relative to that at the same porosity during isostatic compaction. Our data provide constraints on the governing parameters of the compaction theory which describes fluid flow through a viscous matrix, and may have important implications for expulsion of sedimentary fluids, for fluid flow during deformation and metamorphism, and melt extraction from partially molten rocks.     

粗粒料湿化变形数值模拟研究

粗粒料湿化变形特性对土石坝静力稳定有着显著影响。目前开展的三轴试验和直剪试验研究,一般只能进行干样和饱和样的试验,而对于非饱和情况研究较少。基于粗粒料不同围压下湿化变形试验研究成果开展数值模拟研究,结果表明：湿化变形的影响可以通过改变细观剪切模量和细观摩擦系数来实现;随着颗粒破碎随饱和度和围压的增加,湿化后粗粒料的强度低、内聚力降低,但摩擦角变化不大。     

Poisson's ratio at high pore pressure

Laboratory investigations suggest that a precise relationship exists between Poisson's ratio, pore pressure and fluid type. Values of Poisson's ratio for dry samples are significantly smaller than those for fluid-saturated samples. The values are anomalously high for high pore pressure, with the possibility of differentiating between gas-saturated, brine-saturated and oil-saturated porous rocks.
The present study considers two overpressure models, based on oil/gas conversion and disequilibrium compaction, to obtain Poisson's ratio versus differential pressure (confining pressure minus pore pressure). The model results are in good agreement with experiments. Poisson's ratio is approximately constant at high differential pressures and increases (decreases) for saturated (dry) rocks at low differential pressures. Fluid type can be determined at all differential pressures from Poisson's ratio. The analysis is extended to the anisotropic case by computing the three Poisson's ratios of a transversely isotropic rock versus differential pressure. While one of them is practically independent of effective pressure, the others increase with increasing pore pressure. Experiments performed on cores under different pressure conditions, and calibration of the models with these data, provide a tool for inverting pore pressure from seismic data.     

Rock physics modelling of porous rocks with multiple pore types: a multiple-porosity variable critical porosity model

A critical porosity model establishes the empirical relationship between a grain matrix and a dry rock by the concept of critical porosity. The model is simple and practical and widely used. But the critical porosity in the model is a fixed value that cannot relate to pore structure. The aim of this paper is to establish the theoretical relationship between critical porosity and pore structure by combining Kuster–Toksöz theory with the critical porosity model. Different from the traditional critical porosity model, critical porosity is not an empirical value but varied with pore shape and the ratio of bulk modulus versus shear modulus of the grain matrix. The substitution of the theoretical relationship into Kuster–Toksöz theory will generate the formulae for the bulk and shear moduli of multiple-porosity dry rocks, which is named the multiple-porosity variable critical porosity model. The new model has been used to predict elastic moduli for sandstone and carbonate rock. We compare the modelling results for P- and S-wave velocities and elastic moduli with the experimental data. The comparison shows that the new model can be used to describe the elastic properties for the rocks with multiple pore types.     

Influence of confining pressure and impact loading on mechanical properties of amphibolite and sericite-quartz schist

In order to investigate the dynamic mechanical properties of amphibolite and sericite-quartz schist under confi ning pressure, two rocks are subjected to impact loadings with different strain rates and confi ning pressures by using split Hopkinson pressure bar equipment with a confi ning pressure device. Based on the experimental results, the stress-strain curves are analyzed and the effects of confi ning pressure and strain rates on the dynamic compressive strength, peak strain and failure mode are summarized. The results show that:(1) The characteristics of two rocks in the ascent stage of the stressstrain curve are basically the same, but in the descent stage, the rocks gradually show plastic deformation characteristics as the confi ning pressure increases.(2) The dynamic compressive strength and peak strain of two rocks increase as the strain rate increases and the confi ning pressure effects are obvious.(3) Due to the effect of confi ning pressure, the normal stress on the damage surface of the rock increases correspondingly, the bearing capacity of the crack friction exceeds the material cohesion and the slippage of the fractured rock is controlled, which all lead to the compression and shear failure mode of rock. The theoretical analysis and experimental methods to study the dynamic failure mode and other related characteristics of rock are useful in developing standards for engineering practice.     

Using synchrotron X-ray microtomography to characterize the pore network of reservoir rocks: A case study on carbonates

In this work we propose a new methodology to calculate pore connectivity in granular rocks. This method is useful to characterize the pore networks of natural and laboratory compaction bands (CBs), and compare them with the host rock pore network.Data were collected using the synchrotron X-ray microtomography technique and quantitative analyses were carried out using the Pore3D software library. The porosity was calculated from segmented tridimensional images of deformed and pristine rocks. A process of skeletonization of the pore space was used to obtain the number of connected pores within the rock volume. By analyzing the skeletons the differences between natural and laboratory CBs were highlighted. The natural CB has a lower porosity than to the laboratory one. In natural CBs, the grain contacts appear welded, whereas laboratory CBs show irregular pore shape. Moreover, we assessed for the first time how pore connectivity evolves as a function of deformation, documenting the mechanism responsible for pore connectivity drop within the CBs.     

不同温压条件下蛇纹岩和角闪岩中波速与衰减的各向异性

在实验室中研究了蛇纹岩和角闪岩样品在不同温压条件下的纵、横波速度和Q值．这两种岩样对应的主要组成矿物叶蛇纹石和普通角闪石都具有很强的晶格优选方位（LPO）．随着围压的增加,波速和Q值均增大,但是在相互正交的三个方向上（垂直或平行于层理面及线理方向）增大的速度并不相同,这与微裂隙的逐渐闭合密切相关．在600MPa的围压下升高温度直到600℃以上,由于微裂隙的热扩张受到约束,波速和Q值下降幅度很小．观测到的波速和Q值的各向异性具有不同的机理,波速各向异性主要与定向分布的微裂隙和主要矿物的LPO等构造因素有关;高围压下纵波Q值各向异性与速度各向异性正好相反,可能是由于形成层理面的定向排列的平板状矿物晶体沿不同方向边界之间接触程度不同造成的．     

Porous-grain-upper-boundary model and its application to Tarim Basin carbonates

Most of the carbonates in the Tarim Basin in northwest China are low-porosity and low-permeability rocks. Owing to the complexity of porosity in carbonates, conventional rockphysics models do not describe the relation between velocity and porosity for the Tarim Basin carbonates well. We propose the porous-grain-upper-boundary (PGU) model for estimating the relation between velocity and porosity for low-porosity carbonates. In this model, the carbonate sediments are treated as packed media of porous elastic grains, and the carbonate pores are divided into isolated and connected pores The PGU model is modified from the porous-grain-stiff-sand (PGST) model by replacing the critical porosity with the more practical isolated porosity. In the implementation, the effective elastic constants of the porous grains are calculated by using the differential effective medium (DEM) model. Then, the elastic constants of connected porous grains in dry rocks are calculated by using the modified upper Hashin-Shtrikman bound. The application to the Tarim carbonates shows that relative to other conventional effective medium models the PGU model matches the well log data well.