Principles of Probabilistic Regional Mineral Resource Estimation

Five principal sources of uncertainty in quantitative mineral resource estimation are listed and illustrated by means of a simple example (mosaic model) and a case history study for large copper deposits in the Abitibi area of the Canadian Shield. Abitibi copper potential originally was estimated on the basis of 1968 estimates of production and reserves totalling 3.12 Mt Cu. This prognostication now could be evaluated on the basis of 2008 copper production and reserves totalling 9.50 Mt Cu. An earlier hindsight study performed on the basis of 1977 data (totalling 5.23 Mt Cu) showed seven new discoveries occurring either in the immediate vicinities of known deposits or on broad regional copper anomalies predicted from the 1968 inputs. By 1977, the global geographic distribution pattern of large copper deposits in the Abitibi area had stabilized. During the next 30 years, new copper was essentially found close to existing deposits, much of it deeper down in the Earth's crust. In this paper, uncertainties associated with copper ore tonnage are analyzed by comparison of 2008 data with 1968 data using (a) log-log plots of size versus rank, and (b) lognormal QQ-plots. Straight lines fitted by least squares on these plots show that 1968 slopes provide good estimates of 2008 slopes but 1968 intercepts are much less than 2008 intercepts. In each linear log-weight versus log-rank plot, the slope is related to fractal dimension of a Pareto frequency distribution, and in a lognormal QQ-plot it is determined by logarithmic variance. The difference between 2008 and 1968 intercepts represents the increase in copper ore production and reserves from 1968 to 2008. The Pareto model fits actual copper and massive sulphides increase over the past 40 years better than the lognormal frequency distribution model for 10 km×10 km cells on favorable environments in the Abitibi area.      

Geology and mineralization of the Tiegelongnan supergiant porphyry-epithermal Cu (Au,Ag) deposit (10 Mt) in western Tibet,China: A review

The Tiegelongnan Cu(Au,Ag)deposit in central Tibet contains more than 10 Mt of copper ranking 29 th in the world.It is characterized by typical porphyry-epithermal alteration and mineralization.In order to improve the understanding of porphyry-epithermal copper deposit in Tibet,new zircon U-Pb age and sulfur isotope data along with published data in the Tiegelongnan are presented to investigate the formation and preservation mechanism.Ore-related intrusive rocks in the Tiegelongnan including Early Cretaceous(about 120 Ma)granodiorite porphyry and diorite porphyry are closely related to the northward subduction of Bangongco-Nujiang ocean.Sulfur mainly comes from deep magma,and ore-forming fluid is affected by both magmatic and meteoric water.The metallogenic setting of Tiegelongnan is consistent with those of Andean porphyry copper deposits in South America.The cover of the Meiriqiecuo Formation volcanic rocks,Lhasa-Qiangtang collision and India-Eurasian collision have significance in the preservation and uplift of the deposit.The formation,preservation and discovery of Tiegelongnan play an important role in exploration of ancient porphyry-epithermal deposits in Tibet.     

Carbon cycle variability in tropical Atlantic across two Early Eocene hyperthermals

Early Eocene hyperthermals are geologically short-lived global warming events and represent fundamental perturbations to the global carbon cycle and the Earth’s ecosystem due to massive additions of isotopically light carbon to the ocean-atmosphere system.They serve as ancient analogs for understanding how the oceanic carbonate system and surface-ocean ecosystem would respond to ongoing and future climate change.Here,we present a continuous carbonate record across the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2(ETM2 or H1,ca.54.1 Ma)and H2(ca.54 Ma)events from an expanded section at Ocean Drilling Program Site 1258 in tropical Atlantic.The abundant calcareous nannofossils and moderate carbonate content throughout the studied interval suggest this record was deposited above the calcite compensation depth(CCD),but below the lysocline and under the influence of terrestrial dilution.An Earth system model cGENIE is used to simulate the carbon cycle dynamics across the ETM2 and H2 to offer insights on the mechanism of the rapid warming and subsequent recovery in climate and ecosystem.The model suggests moderate changes in ocean pH(0.1–0.2 unit)for the two scenarios,biogenic methane from a rechargeable methane capacitor and organic matter oxidation from thawing of the permafrost.These pH changes are consistent with a recent independent pH estimate across the ETM2 using boron isotopes.The carbon emission flux during the ETM2 is at least an order of magnitude smaller than that during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum(PETM)(0.015–0.05 Pg C yr^-1vs.0.3–1.7 Pg C yr^-1).The comparable pre-and post-event carbonate contents suggest the lysocline did not over deepen following the ETM2 at this tropical Atlantic site,indicating spatial heterogeneity in the carbonate system due to strong dilution influence from terrestrial weathering and riverine discharge at Site 1258.     

Geochronological and geochemical constraints on the petrogenesis of late Mesoproterozoic mafic and granitic rocks in the southwestern Yangtze Block

Late Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks in the SW Yangtze Block are important for understanding the role of it in reconstruction of the Rodinia supercontinent.In the present study,we report new geochronological,geochemical,and Nd-Hf isotopic data for the Cuoke plagioclase amphibolites and granites in the SW Yangtze Block.Geochronological results show that the plagioclase amphibolites and granites have similar late Mesoproterozoic zircon U-Pb ages of 1168-1162 Ma,constituting a bimodal igneous assemblage.The plagioclase amphibolites have high and variable TiO2 contents(1.15-4.30 wt.%)and Mg#(34-66)values,similar to the tholeiitic series.They are characterized by enrichment in LREEs and LILEs,and have OIB-like affinities with positive Nb and Ta anomalies.The plagioclase amphibolites have positive whole-rockεNd(t)(+3.2 to+4.3)and zirconεHf(t)(+4.3 to+10.7)values,indicating that they were derived from an OIB-like asthenospheric mantle source.The granites belong to the reduced peralkaline A-type series and have negativeεNd(t)value of-6.0 andεHf(t)values of-5.8 to-13.8,indicating a derivation from the partial melting of ancient mafic lower crust.In combination with the~1.05-1.02 Ga bimodal igneous assemblage in the SW Yangtze Block,we propose that the Cuoke 1168-1162 Ma igneous rocks were likely formed in a continental rift basin and argue against the existance of Grenvillian Orogen in the SW Yangtze Block during the late Mesoproterozoic.     

Analysis of prospecting polymetallic metallogenic belts by comprehensive geophysical method

This paper is based on the analysis and research on the silver-lead-zinc polymetallic ore in New Ballyhoo Banner in southern Manzhouli of Inner Mongolia.Because metal mineralization brings rock formations,the geophysical features such as low resistivity,high polarization rate and uneven distribution of magnetization,the comprehensive geophysical methods are adopted including high-precision magnetic measurement,high-power induced polarization,IP field middle gradient and controlled source audio-frequency magnetotellurics.In the survey work of multi-metal ore deposits,from surface sweeping to single point measurement,and from single point to section going deeper layer by layer,the resolution of measurement is continuously improved,and various geophysical methods support and complement each other,so explorers can successfully predict the direction,scale and volume of the metallogenic belts in conjunction with geochemical exploration,geological survey and drilling.It has provided a strong basis for completing the exploration task of predicting the reserve volume of ore bodies.The research conclusions of this exploration case have thus a high reference value in the same type of exploration work.     

利用Grapher绘制彩色渐变剖面平面图

在物探扫面工作中,有大量的剖面数据需要绘制成剖面平面图,要求寻找一个高效快速的制图方法.通过对Grapher 自动化功能的分析和实践,编制程序实现了快速绘制彩色渐变剖面平面图的需求,说明利用自动化脚本能够在获得精美图件的同时,可以极大地提高作图效率.     

冷生风化作用对边坡稳定性影响

The experiment shows that considerable influence on density rock properties are subjected by nival weathering conditions. The main parameter defining the rock suitability for solution various engineering and geological problems is its firmness limit on single axis pressing. The firmness properties of sandstone being in absolutely dry condition for Kabakta suite at the beginning of investigation was 64.7 MPa, for Nerungri suite sandstones it was 48. 7 MPa. The investigations showed how much the nival conditions of cryohypergenesis of rock sandstones in Kabakta and Nerungri suites have destructive influence in comparison with aquale and more over aerale conditions. In the aerale conditions sedimentary rock firmness of Kabakta suite decreased to 23.2 MPa, in aquale conditions to 16.5, and in the nivale conditions to 8.9 MPa. In Nerungri suite sandstones are according to 17.7 MPa, 11.1 MPa, and 6 MPa after 300 freezing and thawing cycles. The common sandstone firmness decrease of Kabakta suite was 25 %,of Nerungri suite it was 23.8%. Marlstone samples after 400 FTC decrease to 62% in the nivale conditions and to 33 % in the aerale conditions. After 3～5 years of exploitation marlstone will destruct due to structural and textural inhomogenesis up to gruss, i.e. it will not meet the requirements of durability.Judging by the results of carried out experiment it should be concluded that by cryogenic weathering the sedimentary rocks (sandstones) and rocks with schistose lithogenic texture (marlstone) are subjected to disintegration. The primary rock samples firmness considerably influences on the disintegration rate.     

《同一个地质计划》的进展与对策

《同一个地质计划（OneGeology）》最初由英国地质调查局于2006年2月提出,已得到全球地学组织的支持。到2007年底,国际地球科学联合会等10个全球学术团体与国际地学组织、2个跨国公司、2位知名人士和67个国家的地质调查局参加了该计划。《同一个地质计划》是各个国家的地质调查局贡献给国际行星地球年的、约1：100万比例尺的、可在网络上很容易取得最好世界地质图数据的计划。该计划的目标是：使可用的地质图数据能被更多的人使用,使需要的人受益,促进互操作能力的增强。《同一个地质计划》的实施,可以提升全球、大陆、行星、海洋地球科学图的编制和出版的合作能力。深化对一些地区地质问题的研究,并可作为国际地球行星年一个切实可用的成果,提升国家地质调查局的形象;运用管理地学知识的领导能力和经验,通过教育、科学、文化和交流。能够处理全球污染对社会、经济和环境的影响问题。促进全球环境保护公约的执行,减缓自然灾害,使全球经济可持续发展,人们的居住环境更安全、更繁荣。精神生活更丰富、更快乐。因此,实施该计划不仅有现实意义,更有重要而深远的政治意义。     

Cenozoic Sea‐land Transition and its Petroleum Geological Significance in the Northern South China Sea

The process of Cenozoic sea-land changes in the northern South China Sea(SCS)controlled the sedimentary filling pattern and played an important role in the petroleum geological characteristics of the northern marginal sedimentary basins.Under the control of the opening process of the SCS,the northern SCS Cenozoic transgression generally showed the characteristics of early in the east and late in the west,and early in the south and late in the north.The initial transgression occurred in the Eocene in the Taixinan Basin(TXNB)of the eastern SCS,while the transgression occurred until the Pliocene in the Yinggehai Basin(YGHB)of the western SCS.International Ocean Discovery Program(IODP)expeditions(Expeditions 367/368)revealed that the initial transgression of the SCS basin occurred at approximately 34 Ma,which was the initial opening time of the SCS.The period of drastic changes in the sedimentary environment caused by large-scale transgression corresponded to the opening time of the southwestern subbasin(approximately 23 Ma),which also represented the peak of the spreading of the SCS.The sea-land transition process controls the distribution of alternating continent-marine facies,marine facies source rocks and reservoirs in the basins.The marine facies source rocks of the basins in the northern SCS have a trend of gradually becoming younger from east to west,which is consistent with the regional process of gradual transgression from east to west.Regional sea-level changes were comprehensively influenced by SCS opening and global sea-level changes.These processes led to the early development in the east and south and late development in the west and north for the carbonate platform in the SCS.Carbonate platforms form another type of"selfgenerating and self-accumulating"oil-gas reservoir in the northern SCS.The sea-land transition controlled the depositional filling patterns of different basins and laid the foundation of marine deposits for oil and gas resources.The source-reservoircap assemblage in the northern SCS was controlled horizontally by provenance supply and sedimentary environmental changes caused by sea-land transition and vertically by the tectonic evolution of the SCS and regional sea-level changes.     

Geochemical Characterizations of Source and Depositional Environment of Hydrocarbons in the Lake Albert Rift Basin

Despite the upsurge in hydrocarbon exploration in the Lake Albert Rift Basin(LARB)over the past three decades,systematic characterization of hydrocarbon compositions remains lacking,leading to uncertainties in source rock and oil generation determination.We characterized crude oil compositions and oil sand samples in the northern and southern subbasins of LARB.The relative abundance of normal and branched linear alkanes,hopanes,steranes,and aromatic hydrocarbon suggest that northern and southern hydrocarbons were deposited in anoxic to suboxic lacustrine environments and share similar biological source compositions(i.e.,a mixture of plants and aquatic algae and bacteria).Relative to southern samples,northern samples show more negative δ¹³C values for oils,saturates and aromatics,indicating longer migration paths,and exhibit higher MPI-1,DNR-1 and 4-/1-MDBT ratios,indicating higher maturity.Between the two possible sets of source rocks(upper Miocene and Jurassic strata),the positive δ¹³C values of saturated hydrocarbons(average=-20.5‰)suggest that the upper Miocene lacustrine shale is the most likely candidate.Oleanane index(<5% in our samples)does not exclude either source rock possibility,and C₂₈/C₂₉ regular sterane(average=0.63)may be biased by high terrestrial inputs in a lacustrine setting.Together,our data show that northern and southern oils originate from the same source rocks but different oil kitchens.Given the similar geochemical characteristics of southern and northern oils,previous exploration successes in the northern subbasin likely suggest similar potential in the southern sector,while other elements influencing exploration success must be also evaluated.     

铀钍的地球化学及对地壳演化和生物进化的影响

本文论述了在含挥发份和贫挥发份条件下Ｕ、Ｔｈ的迁移行为及其对地球和行星演化的影响,并阐述了造成地球独特地质演化历史的原因。提出了Ｕ、Ｔｈ在地球中的迁移模式以及该模式对地壳形成、演化的控制作用和对生物发展演化的可能影响。     

我国中西部前陆盆地的特殊性和多样性及其天然气勘探

通过对我国中西部前陆盆地构造特征、大地构造背景、地球物理特征的理论研究和典型前陆盆地的详细解析,系统分析了我国中西部前陆盆地的发育特征和特殊性。强调晚二叠世以来大小不一、形态各异的多块体小型克拉通的聚合碰撞作用是导致中西部前陆盆地群形成的基本动力学过程：这些小型克拉通的多块体聚合碰撞造就了中西部前陆盆地的特殊性和多样性。同时,明确提出中西部盆地的基本特点是“两期三类前陆盆地”,即海西一印支期前陆盆地和喜山期前陆盆地,三类指海西一印支期的周缘前陆盆地和弧后前陆盆地、喜山期再生前陆盆地。根据前陆盆地的盆地结构和演化特征,又将中西部的前陆盆地划分为4种组合形式,即叠合型组合、改造型组合、早衰型组合和新生型组合。综合论述了不同时期不同类型前陆盆地构造对天然气聚集的五大控制作用。     

从榴辉岩与围岩的关系论苏鲁榴辉岩的形成与折返

位于华北和扬子两板块碰撞带中的苏鲁榴辉岩形成的温压条件不但是超高压，而且是高温。榴辉岩的PTt轨迹表明其为陆-陆磁撞俯冲带的产物。榴辉岩的区域性围岩花岗质片麻岩为新元古代同碰撞期花岗岩，榴辉岩及其他直接围岩皆呈包体存在于其中，并见新元古代花岗岩呈脉状侵入榴辉岩包体中。区域性围岩新元古代花岗岩的锆石中发现有柯石英、绿辉石等包裹体，表明新元古代花岗岩的组成物质也经受过超高压变质作用，且榴辉岩与围岩新元古代花岗岩的锆石U-Pb体系同位素年龄基本相同。但新元古代花岗岩所记录的变质作用和变形作用期次（或阶段）却少于榴辉岩。椐上述可得如下推断：超高压榴辉岩与新元古代花岗岩岩浆是同时在碰撞带底部（俯冲板块前部）形成的；榴辉岩的第一折返阶段是由新元古代花岗岩岩浆携带上升的，其第二折返阶段是和新元古代花岗岩一起由逆冲及区域性隆起而上升，遭受剥蚀。     

Wavelets and the Generalization of the Variogram

The experimental variogram computed in the usual way by the method of moments and the Haar wavelet transform are similar in that they filter data and yield informative summaries that may be interpreted. The variogram filters out constant values; wavelets can filter variation at several spatial scales and thereby provide a richer repertoire for analysis and demand no assumptions other than that of finite variance. This paper compares the two functions, identifying that part of the Haar wavelet transform that gives it its advantages. It goes on to show that the generalized variogram of order k=1, 2, and 3 filters linear, quadratic, and cubic polynomials from the data, respectively, which correspond with more complex wavelets in Daubechies's family. The additional filter coefficients of the latter can reveal features of the data that are not evident in its usual form. Three examples in which data recorded at regular intervals on transects are analyzed illustrate the extended form of the variogram. The apparent periodicity of gilgais in Australia seems to be accentuated as filter coefficients are added, but otherwise the analysis provides no new insight. Analysis of hyerpsectral data with a strong linear trend showed that the wavelet-based variograms filtered it out. Adding filter coefficients in the analysis of the topsoil across the Jurassic scarplands of England changed the upper bound of the variogram; it then resembled the within-class variogram computed by the method of moments. To elucidate these results, we simulated several series of data to represent a random process with values fluctuating about a mean, data with long-range linear trend, data with local trend, and data with stepped transitions. The results suggest that the wavelet variogram can filter out the effects of long-range trend, but not local trend, and of transitions from one class to another, as across boundaries.     

东南沿海及南海新生代火山作用与南海的形成演化

中国东南沿海地区和南海海域新生代火山岩系列、类型和SrNd同位素特征十分相似,具有板内玄武岩的特征。根据南海扩张时代,将新生代的火山岩划分为扩张期前、扩张期和扩张期后3大阶段,并利用原生岩浆推导了软流圈岩石圈的一些深部作用特征。扩张期前（接近扩张期）和扩张期软流圈顶部埋深较浅。从扩张期前（接近扩张期）到扩张期软流圈顶部埋深变浅,隙间熔浆增加,原生岩浆的演化具有前进式裂谷火山作用的演化序列,岩石圈扩张速率变大。从扩张期到扩张期后（直至第四纪）,软流圈顶部埋深逐渐变深,隙间熔浆减少,原生岩浆的演化表现出后退式裂谷火山作用的序列,岩石圈扩张速率逐渐变慢。新生代火山作用显示出的深部作用特征与南海的扩张和闭合一致,这为我们提供了南海形成和演化的深部作用证据。     

The variscan front and the midi fault between the channel and the meuse river

The ECORS seismic profile allows a new insight into the deep geology of northern France. Various geological data, such as ancient coal mines, surface mapping and boreholes, are used to interpret the seismic profile. A new cross-section, directly superimposed on the ECORS seismic profile (Cambrai-Dreux), is compared with a previous one, drawn along the Meuse River through the Ardenne Massif. The cylindrism and length-balancing hypotheses are discussed by comparing the two cross-sections. The main geological results are: (a) the emplacement of the Dinant Nappe is later than most of its internal deformation; and (b) major folding and thrusting give an approximate 30–35% shortening, without taking into account the internal deformation (minor folding and cleavage) and the unknown net translation vector of the Dinant Nappe (50 km at least, possibly 150 km).     

Permafrost and taliks and their changes on the south and north banks of the Tuotuo River in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau under the climate warming北大核心CSCD

The distribution of permafrost and taliks is very complex in the Tuotuo River Basin(TRB), which is located in interior of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Characterizing the spatial distribution and the thermal stability of permafrost and taliks is of great significance to community activities and engineering construction in TRB. Based on the zonation of permafrost and talik distribution around TRB conducted in the 1980s, the soil temperature and its variation process of permafrost and taliks in the south and north banks of the Tuotuo River were analyzed by using the observation data of five boreholes(N1~N5)along the Qinghai-Tibet Railway in the north bank and five boreholes(S1~S5)on the first terrace in the south bank. The results showed that, under the climate warming, permafrost and taliks in the north banks experienced significant degradation and warming process. From 2005 to 2020, the permafrost at the N1 borehole has undergone a significant down-draw degradation process, from extremely unstable and high-temperature permafrost to thawed zone. From 2005 to 2013, the annual average ground temperature of the talik at N2 increased at a rate of 0. 3~0. 4 °C·(10a)-1. At Maqutang on the south bank, permafrost prevails from the first-class terrace to the gentle slope of the Kaixinling Mountain, with both through and non-through taliks on the first-class terrace. The spatial distribution and the thermal stability of permafrost and talik in the TRB are further promoted by analyzing the changes in temperatures at boreholes in the basin. However, to meet the requirements of mapping and engineering construction of permafrost and taliks in the TRB, it is still necessary to carry out geological investigation with multiple methods and in-depth research on development mechanism of taliks in the future. © 2022 Nanjing Forestry University. All rights reserved.     

南海的形成演化与新特提斯在南海的重新活化

南海位于印度板块、欧亚板块和太平洋板块之间,是世界上最大的边缘海,其构造位置处于太平洋构造域和特提斯构造域,地质构造复杂.关于南海形成演化的动力学机制存在有多种不同观点,其中最重要的一个观点是印度板块与欧亚板块的碰撞致使华南地块和印支地块地幔物质沿东南方向蠕动,从而导致南海的海底扩张.从特提斯的演化规律,以及新特提斯的闭合过程来看,南海并不是特提斯洋的残留海,而是新特提斯在闭合过程中配合印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞导致华南地块和印支地块地幔物质东南方向蠕动的动力学机制下,在南海重新活化的结果.     

地学信息图谱时空维的诠释与应用

地学信息图谱所研究的地理空间规律和地理过程均具有一定的区域相似性, 故其在空间和时间上具有一定的区域特征,因此对地学信息图谱的研究均有空间和时间尺度方面的范畴。尺度是研究客体或过程的空间维和时间维。根据研究性质、研究对象的空间规模等方面的不同,地学信息图谱的空间尺度可分为大尺度、中尺度和小尺度;按研究的时间尺度不同,地学信息图谱的时间尺度可分为长时间尺度、中等尺度和短时间尺度。地学信息图谱的时空维是指地学信息图谱数据源的时空维或地学信息图谱可以表达的时空维,不同的时空维表达不同的特征和内容。