冷水面对积云的影响——数值试验

采用二维平面对称暖积云模式研究了夏季午后水面对移行过境积云的影响.讨论了过冷水面积云发展演变过程、流场结构和雷达回波结构.试验中考虑整层均匀环境风,并对水陆温差进行了适当处理.计算表明,冷水面对过境积云的影响表现在两个方面:水陆环流辐合上升运动使移近水面的积云受到一定程度增强;水陆环流的下沉运动和冷变性气层的共同作用使积云移入水面后发展受抑,强度减弱.受冷水面作用后的积云流场和液水场均发生很大变化,有些积云移过水面后可以重行增强.     

盐粉催化积云降水的数值模拟

本文利用二维直角坐标非定常积云降水模式模拟播撒盐粉催化降水过程.播撒是在云中一个网格点中一次引入盐粉,盐粉进云后碰并云滴长大并随云中气流移动和沉降.在计算盐粉成雨的同时还计算自然成雨. 计算结果表明,在合适条件下,盐粉催化后约半小时可出现增雨,增加雨量为10％—50％,它是播撒量的几千倍.盐粉直径小的降雨效率高,但在云中生长时间长,一般采用几十微米至一百微米直径的盐粉为宜.     

积云暖雨过程及其盐粉催化的参数化数值模拟

我国南方夏季浓积云和积雨云前期的自然成雨过程中,暖雨过程(没有冰相参与的凝结、碰并过程)起着主要的作用。多年来我们进行的盐粉催化积云的人工降雨试验,其作用原理也在于影响积云的暖雨过程。在数值模拟中必须对暖雨过程提出比较切合实际的可用的数值模式。     

Criteria for the Onset of Significant Concentrations of Ice Particles in cumulus clouds

Field observations and measurements, reported from many locations around the world, are used to deduce the cloud depths (and cloud top temperatures) required for the Onset of Significant Concentrations of Ice Particles (OSCIP) in cumulus clouds. The results show that the OSCIP will generally occur if cloud top temperatures are between about −4° and −10°C. The results are compared with the criteria for the OSCIP proposed by Hobbs and Rangno (1985) and for the formation of high ice particle concentrations by riming-splintering.     

积云中云滴群凝结增长的数值模拟

本文用一维非定常积云模式研究积云中云滴群的凝结增长。比较了几种盐核谱及不同湍流交换强度等情况下凝结形成的云滴谱特征。结果表明半径1.5—2.5微米的巨核在凝结过程形成大云滴中起主要作用,而较大的巨核对平衡态凝结谱影响不大,仅起到提早出现大云滴的作用。凝结核浓度过大不利于大云滴的形成,对半径 1.5—2.5微米的巨核浓度为 10~(-3)个/厘米~3比较有利。凝结平衡谱随湍流交换和夹卷作用的影响较大,在某些条件下可以模拟出双峰谱。     

对流云中冰相过程的三维数值模拟 Ⅱ：繁生过程作用

在可压缩三维冷云数值模式里对冰晶繁生过程进行了参数化,显式考虑了过冷滴冻结破裂和Hallett-Mossop两个繁生机制,并对冰晶浓度进行了订正。对暖底孤立积云的模拟实例表明繁生作用对对流系统宏观特征没有显著改变,地面总降水略有增加,最大雨强增大且时间提前。繁生过程的主要作用是改变了云的微物理结构特征,使云中冰化时间提早,冰化程度大大加强,引起云上部增暖并抬高云顶。在所考虑的两个繁生机制中,冻结破裂繁生机制是引起微物理结构发生变化的主要过程。还对各冰相微物理过程的相对作用进行了分析。     

风切变对积云发展影响的数值模拟研究

本文采用二维暖积云模式研究了风切变对积云发展和降水大小的影响。计算结果表阴:一般有风切变情况下积云的发展和降水量都明显减弱。这是由于水平气流的作用促进了云内外水汽和热量交换,减弱了积云发展的条件。计算还表明:在多种不同风速廓线和大气层结下风切变对云和降水发展均不利。 我们发现当云移行前方有高湿区时,在中等的风切变下可能有利于积云发展和降水形成。这是由于在水汽场和风场的配置下,云中得到充沛的水汽补充,促进了云和降水的发展,总降水量可增加2—3倍。     

大陆性浓积云云滴谱离散度影响因子的飞机观测研究

利用2020年7月30日山西省人工增雨防雷技术中心在山西省忻州地区开展的大陆性浓积云飞机探测资料,分析了积云微物理参量、云滴谱离散度随时间和高度的变化以及云滴谱离散度的影响因子。结果表明,该大陆性浓积云云滴谱离散度随高度的增加先递增后递减,但变化范围较小。云滴谱离散度随数浓度、含水量增大而逐渐收敛,呈弱正相关关系;离散度与体积平均半径的相关性随体积平均半径的增大由正转负,与垂直速度呈现正相关关系。云中碰并过程对云滴谱离散度及其影响因子影响较大,建议未来云滴谱离散度的参数化增加对碰并过程的考虑。     

对流云中冰相过程的三维数值模拟 I:模式建立及冷云参数化

本文建立了一个完全弹性三维冷云数值模式。采用参数化方法处理冰相微物理,包括冰核化、凝华、结淞、雹干湿增长以及融化等15个主要过程。使用理想初值条件和环境场对模式进行了检验,证明是可靠和稳定的。三维对流云系统的一些主要特征均能够成功模拟出,例如弱云外补偿下沉运动、云中水平涡耦及其分裂、中层障碍流、弱回波结构等。     

The radiative influence of aerosol effects on liquid-phase cumulus and stratiform clouds based on sensitivity studies with two climate models

Aerosol effects on warm (liquid-phase) cumulus cloud systems may have a strong radiative influence via suppression of precipitation in convective systems. A consequence of this suppression of precipitation is increased liquid water available for large-scale stratiform clouds, through detrainment, that in turn affect their precipitation efficiency. The nature of this influence on radiation, however, is dependent on both the treatment of convective condensate and the aerosol distribution. Here, we examine these issues with two climate models—CSIRO and GISS, which treat detrained condensate differently. Aerosol–cloud interactions in warm stratiform and cumulus clouds (via cloud droplet formation and autoconversion) are treated similarly in both models. The influence of aerosol–cumulus cloud interactions on precipitation and radiation are examined via simulations with present-day and pre-industrial aerosol emissions. Sensitivity tests are also conducted to examine changes to climate due to changes in cumulus cloud droplet number (N _c); the main connection between aerosols and cumulus cloud microphysics. Results indicate that the CSIRO GCM is quite sensitive to changes in aerosol concentrations such that an increase in aerosols increases N _c, cloud cover, total liquid water path (LWP) and reduces total precipitation and net cloud radiative forcings. On the other hand, the radiative fluxes in the GISS GCM appear to have minimal changes despite an increase in aerosols and N _c. These differences between the two models—reduced total LWP in the GISS GCM for increased aerosols, opposite to that seen in CSIRO—appear to be more sensitive to the detrainment of convective condensate, rather than to changes in N _c. If aerosols suppress convective precipitation as noted in some observationally based studies (but not currently treated in most climate models), the consequence of this change in LWP suggests that: (1) the aerosol indirect effect (calculated as changes to net cloud radiative forcing from anthropogenic aerosols) may be higher than previously calculated or (2) lower than previously calculated. Observational constrains on these results are difficult to obtain and hence, until realistic cumulus-scale updrafts are implemented in models, the logic of detraining non-precipitating condensate at appropriate levels based on updrafts and its effects on radiation, will remain an uncertainty.     

祁连山冷锋过程中积层混合云微物理特征飞机观测研究

利用高性能空中国王飞机搭载的DMT(Droplet Measurement Technologies)探测系统,分析2020年6月15—16日祁连山地区两次冷锋过程前后积层混合云的宏微观特征。结果表明:冷锋前CIP(Cloud Imaging Probe)粒子平均浓度在10¹~10²L^-1,PIP(Precipitation Imaging Probe)粒子浓度在10² L^-1;CIP粒子数浓度随高度逐渐上升,降水粒子在7 300 m时浓度达到峰值后下降;平均粒子谱拓宽速率为3.5 mm·km^-1,随着高度的下降而降低。冷锋前存在对流泡区域,对流泡内粒子浓度均高出对流泡外,粒子谱拓宽速率高出层云一倍。冷锋后大CIP粒子粒子浓度为10² L^-1,降水粒子浓度为10⁰~10² L^-1,粒子谱拓宽速率为1.5 mm·km^-1,较冷锋前粒子谱拓宽速率小1.7倍。锋前后粒子均呈现多峰型;锋前积层混合云云中对流泡内外谱型一致,云顶处对流泡内外峰值粒径不同。锋前云粒子形状为聚合状、枝状、柱状和不规则状,以聚合状为主;云内冰晶以凇附和聚合增长为主;对流泡内外在粒子形态上没有明显差异。锋后粒子形状以不规则粒子为主,云粒子增长形式以聚合增长为主,并伴有上层云向下层播撒大云粒子的现象。     

Measurement of total and condensed water mixing ratios in warm-based cumulus clouds by a jet engine evaporation technique

Summary A technique has been developed for measuring total water mixing ratio and condensed water mixing ratio in warm-based convective clouds. The jet engine compressor on a Learjet 24 is employed as an evaporator to convert all cloud condensate to vapour and the vapour density in the compressed (bleed) air is measured with a Lyman-alpha humidiometer.Sources of error in the measurement are i) a contaminant in the air lines which must be evaluated regularly by baselining the measurement against a dewpoint measurement in clear air; ii) nonisokinetic sampling at the jet inlet, which has been evaluated by monitoring the volume flow rate of air at the inlet.The Lyman-alpha humidiometer has been found to be robust and serviceable, with very slow drift properties. The drift is monitored by introducing dry nitrogen into the measurement cell.

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Zusammenfassung Eine Technik wurde entwickelt, um die Gesamt- und Kondenswassermischungsverhältnisse in konvektiven Wolken mit warmer Basis zu messen. Ein Düsentriebwerkskompressor auf einer Learjet 24 dient als Verdunster, um alles kondensierte Wasser in Dampf umzuwandeln, dessen Dichte in der ausströmenden komprimierten Luft dann mittels eines Lyman-alpha-Feuchtemeßgeräts bestimmt wird.Fehlerquellen sind zum einen die Verunreinigung der Luftstraßen, die regelmäßig ausgewertet werden muß, indem der Hintergrundswert durch Taupunktmessungen in klarer Luft bestimmt wird; zum anderen die nicht-isokinetische Probenentnahme am Triebwerkseinlaß, die aus der Volumsflußrate der Luft am Einlaß bestimmt wird.Das Lyman-alpha-Feuchtemeßgerät erwies sich als robust und wartungsextensiv, u. a. aufgrund seiner geringen Drift. Die Drift wird mittels in die Meßkammer eingeführten trokkenen Stickstoffes aufgezeichnet.

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With 10 Figures     

The growth of cumulus over mountains

Summary In order to make the complicated process of thermal convection intelligible it is helpful if various component processes can be considered separately. It is well known that cumulus grow preferentially over mountains by day. The motion is analysed into thethermals, which are small scale, and thecirculations, which may be very large according to the topography. The circulations possess inertia which causes motion to persist into the night. The existence of clouds makes possible circulations in statically stable air and prevents the growth of clouds in other places. Nocturnal convection clouds are a complicated result of these and other minor effects. The forecasting of convection clouds is best done by comparison with previous occasions, preferably the previous day rather than by analysis of the present weather situation alone.

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Zusammenfassung Um den komplizierten Vorgang der Wärmekonvektion verständlich zu machen, empfiehlt es sich, die verschiedenen Teilprozesse getrennt zu betrachten. Bekanntlich bilden sich Cumuli bevorzugt über Bergen bei Tage. Der Bewegungsvorgang läßt sich zerlegen in Wärmeströmungen von kleinen Dimensionen und in Zirkulationsströmungen, die entsprechend der Topographie sehr groß sein können. Die Zirkulationsvorgänge besitzen eine Trägheit, die die Bewegungsvorgänge bis in die Nacht andauern läßt. Das Vorhandensein von Wolken ermöglicht das Auftreten von Zirkulationen in statisch stabiler Luft und verhindert das Wachsen von Wolken an anderen Stellen; so bilden die nächtlichen Konvektionswolken ein kompliziertes Ergebnis dieser und anderer kleiner Effekte. Die Voraussage von Konvektionsbewölkung erfolgt am besten durch Vergleichung mit früheren Fällen, womöglich mit dem Vortage, eher als durch Analyse der momentanen Wettersituation allein.

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Résumé Afin de rendre compréhensible le problème compliqué de la convection thermique, il est utile de considérer séparément les différents processus y prenant part. Généralement, les cumuli se forment de préférence en plein jour au-dessus des montagnes. Ce mouvement peut être divisé en courants thermiques de dimensions modestes et en courants de circulation qui, suivant la topographie du lieu, peuvent prendre une grande envergure. Ces courants de circulation possèdent une inertie qui permet à ces mouvements de persister pendant la nuit. La présence de nuages permet en outre des courants de circulation dans de l'air statiquement stable et peut empêcher des nuages de se former ailleurs. Les nuages de convection nocturnes sont, entre autre, le résultat de pareils effets. On sera mieux avisé de fonder la prévision des nuages de convection en comparant des cas précédents, notamment de la veille, plutôt qu'en analysant seulement la situation météorologique du moment.

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With 2 Figures.

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Presented at the 3rd International Meeting on Alpine Meteorology, Davos 12th–14th April, 1954.     

积云中云滴谱形成的数值模拟研究(二)——各种碰并过程、大气层结等的作用

本文利用已建立的一维非定常积云数值模式,分别研究了各种碰并过程、大气层结条件和吸湿性盐核的化学成分对积云中云滴谱形成的影响.计算结果表明,在各种碰并过程对积云发展前期云滴谱展宽的作用中,以重力碰并过程的作用最为显著,小尺度湍流的碰并过程则起到很重要的促进作用,它可以加速大云滴的增长,而电碰并过程的作用并不大.大气层结条件对积云中云滴谱的形成影响较大,而吸湿性盐核的化学成分对积云的宏观特征和微观特征都影响不大.     

The frequency of winter Chinooks in Alberta

A study was made of winter temperatures to determine the frequency of chinook days in Alberta. The resulting pattern shows a maximum frequency along a line just east of the front range of the mountains, with the frequency decreasing slowly eastward. But a careful analysis of the Calgary‐Red Deer‐Drumheller triangle shows that the frequency is influenced by local topography and that the warm air at times overrides a pool of cold air in a valley to appear at high elevations to the east.     

The role of clouds in tropospheric photochemistry

We show that photochemical processes in the lower half of the troposphere are strongly affected by the presence of liquid water clouds. Especially CH₂O, an important intermediate of CH₄ (and of other hydrocarbon) oxidation, is subject to enhanced breakdown in the aqueous phase. This reduces the formation of HO _x -radicals via photodissociation of CH₂O in the gas phase. In the droplets, the hydrated form of CH₂O, its oxidation product HCO₂ ^–, and H₂O₂ recycle O₂ ^– radicals which, in turn, react with ozone. We show that the latter reaction is a significant sink for O₃. Further O₃ concentrations are reduced as a result of decreased formation of O₃ during periods with clouds. Additionally, NO _x , which acts as a catalyst in the photochemical formation of O₃, is depleted by clouds during the night via scavenging of N₂O₅. This significantly reduces NO _x -concentrations during subsequent daylight hours, so that less NO _x is available for O₃ production. Clouds thus directly reduce the concentrations of O₃, CH₂O, NO _x , and HO _x . Indirectly, this also affects the budgets of other trace gases, such as H₂O₂, CO, and H₂.     

The scavenging of nitrate by clouds and precipitation

A model with spectral microphysics was developed to describe the scavenging of nitrate aerosol particles and HNO₃ gas. This model was incorporated into the dynamic framework of an entraining air parcel model with which we computed the uptake of nitrate by cloud drops whose size distribution changes with time because of condensation, collision-coalescence and break-up. Significant differences were found between the scavenging behavior of nitrate and our former results on the scavenging behavior of sulfate. These reflect the following chemical and microphysical differences between the two systems:

1. nitrate particles occur in a larger size range than sulfate particles.
2. HNO₃ has a much greater solubility than SO₂ and is taken up irreversibly inside the drops in contrast to SO₂.
3. nitric acid in the cloud water is formed directly on uptake of HNO₃ gas whereas on uptake of SO₂ sulfuric acid is formed only after the reaction with oxidizing agents such as e.g., H₂O₂ or O₃.
4. nitrate resulting from uptake of HNO₃ is confined mainly to small drops, whereas sulfate resulting from uptake of SO₂ is most concentrated in the largest, oldest drops, which have had the greatest time for reaction.

Sensitivity studies showed that the nitrate concentration of small drops is significantly affected by the mass accommodation coefficient.     

The structure and movement of the Chinook in Alberta

At the beginning of the 1930's the demand for aviation meteorological services was increasing rapidly. Before the Meteorological Service of Canada could significantly expand, however, the economic depression forced the cancellation of contracts and programs in aviation and the demand diminished greatly. Continuing to provide general public and marine forecasts and routine climatological services, the Service inaugurated seasonal forestry and agricultural forecasts during the mid 1930's. Taking advantage of innovations in meteorological science abroad, the Service began participating with the University of Toronto in a postgraduate training program in meteorology, and undertook to adapt the new meteorological theories to North American weather. During the late 1930's the demand for aviation meteorological services intensified again, leading to the establishment of aviation forecast offices to serve Trans‐Canada Airlines at Vancouver, Winnipeg, Toronto and Montreal. In addition a trans‐Atlantic aviation forecast office was set up at Gander, Newfoundland. During the decade, the number of professional meteorologists in Canada increased from less than a dozen to more than 50, while the number of telegraphic reporting stations was nearly doubled from 70 to 135.     

The effect of cirrus clouds on microwave limb radiances

This study presents and analyses the first simulations of microwave limb radiances with clouds. They are computed using the 1D unpolarized version of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer System (ARTS). The study is meant to set a theoretical foundation for using microwave limb measurements for cloud monitoring. Information about clouds is required for the validation of climate models.Limb spectra are generated for the frequency bands of the Millimeter wave Acquisitions for Stratosphere/Troposphere Exchange Research (MASTER) instrument. For these simulations, the radiative transfer equation is solved using the Discrete Ordinate ITerative (DOIT) method, which is briefly described. Single scattering properties for the cloud particles are calculated using the T-matrix method.The impact of various cloud parameters is investigated. Simulated brightness temperatures most strongly depend on particle size, ice mass content and cloud altitude. The impact of particle shape is much smaller, but still significant. Increasing the ice mass content has a similar effect as increasing the particle size; this complicates the prediction of the impact of clouds on microwave radiances without exact knowledge of these cloud parameters.